小升初英语分类作文写作技巧(推荐20篇)

如果平时学习侧重吸收，那么写论文则是贵在创新。如同蜜蜂采花，最终是为了酿蜜。小编收集了社会科学论文的写作技巧，欢迎阅读。

一、选好题目

科学研究工作的首要一步是选题。选定题目并不难，选好题目则不易。有人说，选好题目是论著成功的一半，这是有一定道理的。因为只有选好题目，才能明确主攻方向，确定主要内容，体现出论文的特点和优点，反映出论文在学术研究中的地位和适应社会需求的程度。

有人认为选题很容易，随便选定本专业的任何一个题目，下一番功夫就能出成果;有人则把选题看得很神秘，左顾右盼下不了决心。这是两种偏向：前者带有盲目性，后者显出动摇性。选择题目一定要避免盲目性，克服动摇性;提高自觉性，明确目的性。

选题要考虑客观的需要。有的是教学中遇到的问题，只有经过一番研究才能满足教学需要，提高教学质量。有的是现实斗争和社会实践存在的问题，要求我们下功夫研究，从理论高度和深度提出解决问题的方案和对策。有的是科学发展的需要，在专业研究中有不少问题要求进行新的探索，或者对别人的研究成果有不同的看法需要开展争鸣。

选题要心中有数。不论选定什么题目，都得先熟悉前人研究的情况。通过查阅书目、报刊资料索引或请教老师和同行，了解前人对这个问题有哪些研究成果，达到什么程度，存在什么争论，还有什么空白或薄弱环节，以便继承前人成果，继续向前开拓。如果自己有不同看法，可提出商榷;如果是空白或薄弱环节，只要有条件就可以想法填补或加强。如果自己无力向前推进，那就不要选这个题目。

选题要考虑自己的条件。诸如个人的兴趣、爱好、基础、长处、掌握的外文语种和熟练程度、搜集资料的可能性等等。

选题时还有几个问题要具体分析：

选大题还是选小题?如果材料来源丰富，可以大题大做，写成大部头专著，或者把大题分成若干小题，各个小题分别逐步去做，集小成大，大部头专著也就出来了。或者小题大做。我手边至今还保存一本20世纪50年代翻译出版的苏联一位学者的博士论文《为苏维埃政权而斗争的水兵》，该文只写从1917年10月至1918年3月这半年时间内，海军士兵在建立和巩固苏维埃政权中的作用。由于作者运用了大量档案和报刊材料，所以全书竟达20.5万字。如果着重从发展规律上进行概括和分析，那么也可以大题小做，做到高屋建瓴、高瞻远瞩、纲举目张、鞭辟入里，这样有助于人们提高并加深认识。例如列宁写的《马克思学说的历史命运》就是大题小做的范文。全文只有两千余字，把马克思主义诞生以来近七十年间的历史划分为革命风暴、和平发展和新的世界风暴三个时期，概述了马克思主义在这三个时期中遇到的问题、经历的斗争和取得的成就。文中很多精辟的论点和精彩的论述至今还常为人们所引用。这类大题小做的题目，如果立意不新、立论不深、立足不高，就容易流为空泛或肤浅。在通常情况下，最好是中题中做或者小题小做，这样容易深入进去，见效较快。

选理论的题好还是选历史的题好?如果史料不多，前人理论分析较少，自己又能够深入进行理论分析，那就可以选理论方面的题目。如果史料较多，前人挖掘整理不够，那就可以选历史方面的题目。一般说来，最好是史论结合，有的可以偏论，有的可以偏史，但是不要写成纯理论或纯历史。纯理论不免抽象枯燥;纯历史是史料堆砌，难以成为论文。既是论文，总要就大量史料进行梳理和分析，提出自己的独立见解。

选热门题目还是冷门题目?热门题目一般都是现实意义较大的，应该注意研究;但是热门题目一般又是研究者较多的，一定要多下功夫研究，以求突破和进展。无论是哪类题目，都应从需要和可能出发，不要单纯“赶浪头”或“钻冷门”。还有一些不冷不热的题目可能更为合适，不要轻易放过。

选新题好还是选老题好?新题一般是前人研究较少的，甚至是空白点，容易出成果;当然新题可能材料少、难度大，要选就要多下功夫，那还是能写出新意的。一般说来，最好是选较新的题目，新题新做或老题新做，而不要老题老做或新题老做。

是先看了材料再选题还是选定了题再找材料?这两者不是截然对立的。选任何题目都要先看一定的材料，这样才能避免盲目性;可以在确定选题范围之后再继续搜集并阅读材料，进而把题目具体化、精确化。最后，选定的题目，文字表述要求尽量简短、鲜明，不要拖泥带水一长串。

二、深入研究

选好题目之后的第二步，就是花大量时间狠下苦功、深入研究。往往在深入研究的过程中还要对选题作局部调整，或者使选题更加具体化、精确化。

深入研究从何入手呢?也就是如何寻找突破口的问题。有人从阅读有关的理论著作入手，有人从阅读原始文献和资料入手，这样做难免会事倍功半，读了大量书籍还是发现不了多少问题。事半功倍的捷径是从阅读前人对这一问题的有关研究成果入手。即通过导师指点和查阅各种工具书———如历年来出版的《全国图书总目》《全国主要报刊索引》、中国人民大学书报资料中心编印的《复印报刊资料》有关专题、图书馆资料室收藏的专题索引、几种专业刊物以及外文书目和报刊资料索引等等，现在通过网络能更快地选编出书目，然后择要阅读。在阅读中要注意：前人已取得哪些成果?还有哪些薄弱环节或者空白点?在哪些问题上有待深入和提高?有哪些值得商榷之处或者能提出自己的新见解?在史料或者史实的运用上还存在哪些问题?

在吸收前人研究成果的过程中，也能发现前人引用过的资料及经典著作和原始文献，并编出更详尽的书目。

在阅读各种材料过程中，要开动脑筋、反复思考，大体形成一个研究提纲，把自己选好的题目分解为若干问题。各个问题再分为若干层次;然后按问题先后再细读各种有关材料。在研究过程中，要先从中文材料着手，详细地没有遗漏地熟悉掌握各种中文材料，再去查阅外文书刊，以求新信息、新看法和新资料。要特别注意挖掘第一手材料，同时也要留心第二手材料。

在研究材料的过程中，要用心、专心、细心，才能发现问题，稍微疏忽就会一纵而过，结果还要重花时间和精力去再查。好记性不如烂笔头，对各种有用或备用的材料都要手勤，用卡片或本子摘要记下或写索引，每条材料都要注明具体出处，以便日后引用和核对。材料积累多了还要分类排列，既便于检索，又能从中发现还缺少什么，以便进一步广为搜集。有的材料在研究过程中要反复读好几遍，有的还要相互参照比较。

研究过程就是从感性认识提高到理性认识的过程。在这个过程中，对材料要进行“去粗取精、去伪存真”的处理，对问题的认识要进行“由此及彼、由表及里”的思考。材料要广泛搜集，宽打窄用，在论文中最后精选最有典型性、最切题的材料。要善于发现互相矛盾的材料，下一番功夫辨别、考证清楚。“由此及彼”即考察事物上下左右以及内部与外部的各方面联系，开阔思路，进行比较研究。既要纵向比较，又要横向比较，还要正反面比较。“由表及里”即通过表面现象深入本质，把各个事物作为一个系统来考察，探索系统之内和各系统之间各种因素的错综复杂的关系，总结出规律性。要善于展开、深入分析事物的必要性和可能性、可能性和现实性、必然性和偶然性、绝对性和相对性、普遍性和特殊性、统一性和多样性、共性和个性、原因和结果、内容和形式、整体和局部、联系和区别、定性和定量、动态和静态、回顾和展望，等等。在研究过程中，最重要的是要思考自己对这一问题能从什么角度加深，能从哪些方面提高，如何进行新概括，做出新分析，运用新语言，补充新材料，提出新见解，得出新结论;不能只是利用别人的成果，改头换面，单炒冷饭。即便是炒冷饭也要添油加料，辅以鸡蛋、葱花、味精，如此才能做出一道别具特色的新食品。但是创新一定要在研究大量材料中解放思想、实事求是地形成，决不能靠零星材料、凭一知半解而轻率地标新立异;更不能胡乱提出新观点，片面进行论证。

三.精心写作

论文的最后一步是精心写作。动笔写作前，应该通盘整理一下研究成果，对研究提纲进行调整和补充，进一步衍化为写作提纲，对全文的布局、观点的体系、分析的层次、材料的使用作统一的安排。写作过程不是单纯记录研究成果的过程，而是继续深入研究的过程，是把研究成果精确化和完善化的过程。在写作过程中发现对哪些问题研究还不够深透、论证还不够充分，就要记下来继续攻关。

写社会科学论文要明确其性质和特点。论说文不同于记叙文、应用文和文艺作品，而是以议论为主的文体。但是，在论说文中，社会科学论文又具有独特之处：它不同于讲义材料、资料性文章、宣传性文章、通俗性读物。社会科学论文专业性很强，应有自己的研究心得，以表述自己的见解为主，应对学科建设起推动作用，至少也要在综合别人成果的基础上有所加深。更高的要求是填补学科的空白，一般要求超过前人已达到的成就，要有新的创见。写论文要力求删繁就简、突出重点，主要写自己的观点。在研究过程中所掌握的各种珍贵资料，则可以系统整理为若干专题，编入附件，留供答辩时用，或供别人参考。文前要概述前人的研究成果，并作出简要评价;文中引用别人观点或不同意别人某个观点，都要求注明出处;文末要求附中外参考书目，表明自己视野有多大，参照并吸收了哪些人的研究成果。

有人认为一篇论文包括观点和材料两个要素，我认为这样概括是不全面的，应该说论文含有论点、论据、论证、论述四个要素。论点即观点，论据即材料，论证指立论证明的方法和层次，论述指文字表述的要领和技巧。同样的观点和材料，有的人更善于归纳和演绎、概括和分析，有的人更善于表达和铺陈、炼句和修辞，结果写出来的文章就很不一样。可见，论证和论述这两者对于一篇论文的成功而言，应该说是不可缺少的有独立意义的要素。对这四个写作要素的基本要求，我想大体上可以编成四句顺口溜：论点方面，观点鲜明、有破有立;论据方面，材料充实、用心搜集;论证方面，分析细致、逻辑严密;论述方面，文字简炼、明确有力。

一篇论文总要提出问题、解决问题，总要主张什么、反对什么，提出并阐发自己的新见解应是论文的主干，同时还要批驳自己所不同意的其他观点，这样两相对照才更显得鲜明。文中除了突出自己的中心观点之外，还要展开写一系列派生观点，评论一系列别人的观点。

观点是从研究大量材料中形成的，所以各个观点都要以充实的材料加以佐证。在运用材料时，要注意目的性、典型性和真实性。如果目的性不明确，材料和观点就统一不起来，对不上号;如果使用的材料不具有典型性，就缺少说服力，从局部材料、个别情况就不能做出全局性、普遍性的结论;如果粗心大意，照抄别人搞错的材料，就会以讹传讹。总之，各种材料要用心搜集、细心筛选、精心辨别、耐心考证。

论证是在论点和论据统一的基础上层层展开，由此及彼、由表及里、由点到面、由简到繁，由因到果、由量到质、由浅入深、由始至终。对各个问题细加分析，其中要蕴含一些深邃的哲理，不仅令人折服，而且还能使人读后余味犹存，反复思索。全文从开头、主体到收尾，各个部分、各个段落、各个句子之间，结构、布局和叙述都要逻辑十分严密，一环扣一环，不能有漏洞，不能自相矛盾，或者相互抵消。写好一篇论文不能只着眼于主体，还要注重开头和收尾。古人评判佳作有所谓“豹头、熊腰、凤尾”之说。例如，著名的《共产党宣言》，不仅其主体具有深刻的说服力，而且开头就有很强的吸引力———“一个幽灵，共产主义的幽灵，在欧洲徘徊”，收尾提出“全世界无产者，联合起来”的口号，有何等强烈的号召力!

论述用词要简炼、鲜明、准确，还要生动活泼。用词要反复斟酌锤炼。用词还要多样化，尽量减少简单重复，这样才能使文章不单调乏味。尽量运用我国历史上流传下来的成语典故能使文章言简意赅。运用形象比喻能把道理说得更加透彻，并给人以深刻印象，又增添文采。例如马克思把暴力比喻为社会变革的助产婆，把分散的小农比喻为一麻袋土豆，列宁把帝国主义比喻为“泥足巨人”，斯大林把社会主义与工人运动的结合比喻为罗盘与大船，毛泽东把资产阶级的腐蚀比喻为“糖衣炮弹”等等。除用词外还要注意句式。老用陈述句未免单调呆板，间以疑问句、感叹句等，就显得丰富多彩。排比句、对偶句，能表达得更鲜明，又增加语言文字的美感，还便于记诵。如能适当引用一些古诗词和先哲的名言警句，则更能使文章光彩夺目。

写作至少要三遍定稿。第一稿先把自己的看法和该用的材料都汇总一起;第二稿主要在分析提高上下功夫，力求精炼，逻辑严密，富于哲理;第三稿主要在文字上推敲、加工，并核对引文和材料，力求准确而又有文采。这只是大体而言，实际上一篇论文往往要修改十多次，应该不厌其烦，精益求精。要使文章富于哲理又有文采，需要长期日积月累的理论素养和语言文字素养。平时要多读中外古今名篇佳作，从中领会写作方法和技巧。清朝名儒郑板桥在《楹联》中留下警言妙语：“删繁就简三秋树，领异标新二月花。”写出好文章正是要不断删繁就简、反复琢磨，如何突出自己的创新。

在完成社会科学论文之前，还可以把它分解为若干小题，然后加以汇总并进一步提高，这也不失为聚少成多、化零为整的捷径。在完成论文之后，还要求把它浓缩为几百字或千把字的提要，“纳须弥于芥子”(这是佛家语，意为把偌大的一座须弥山藏纳于细小的芥子中)，列于文首，便于别人掌握要点。

学士论文、硕士论文和博士论文，这是学位论文的三级，在题目大小、内容深浅和份量多少等方面体现出区别。层次越高，要求也越高。一般说来，学士论文万字左右，硕士论文约二三万字，博士论文可以写成十几万字。总的说来，质量比数量更重要，能有真知灼见，未必都要洋洋大观。

做实际工作的党政干部，如果掌握了写论文的要领，遵循写论文的三部曲，狠下功夫，也是能够把对实际工作的调查研究和自己的工作总结写成有份量的社会科学论文。毛泽东1927年的《湖南农民运动考察报告》和1928年的《井冈山的斗争》就是不朽的历史名篇。

需要格外强调的一点是：文章是写给别人读的，是写给并非研究这个专题的读者读的。因此一定要写得深入浅出，对事件、人物、时间、地点、专有名词等等都要交代清楚，这样才能使读者看得明白，而且有可读性和吸引力。有人论及活学与著述的关系时，把它区分为四种类型、四个等级：深入浅出好学问，深入深出深学问，浅入浅出没学问，浅入深出假学问。我们要力求写出深入浅出的好文章。

1、紧扣主题，短文必须包括提纲中的全部要点;与主题无关或关系不大的字句必须一律删去。

2、文章通顺，前后贯通，语言流畅。

3、句子开头多样化，句型多样化。

4、无句型结构错误，无语法错误和用语造句等方面的错误。

5、短文字数不得少于150个字。

对考研英语短文的策略：

1.分配好短文各部分篇幅比例

根据在40分钟内写150词的《大纲》要求，合理分配各部分篇幅比例显得非常重要。篇幅比例安排大致如下：

(1)开头：可控制在4句话之内，以2——3句较为适宜。该部分约占全文篇幅的10%——15%。

(2)主体：约占全篇短文的70%——80%。

(3)结尾：这部分应控制在2——3句话之内，约占全文篇幅10——15%。

2.合理分配时间

应该切记短文写作时间仅为40分钟，在这较短的时间内考生需完成120——150词的短文。这就要求考生做到有条不紊、忙而不乱，充分发挥自己应有的水平。从而稳操胜券，驾轻就熟，从容应对。建议考生在动笔之前，用5分钟的时间写个提纲理清思路，然后再动笔。此外，要留出5——6分钟来修改抄写。以避免不必要的笔误，给评卷老师留下良好的印象。

3.审题——紧扣主题的关键

所谓审题，就是正确理解题意，所写短文要紧扣题目要求。从每年的英文短文考题可看出，除了题目外，还有开头第一句话和一个写作提纲。这个写作提纲就是短文的写作具体范围。考生必须以指定的句子开头，按写作提纲规定的要点和顺序(通常是3个要点)往下写。

通常3个要点就是写三段话，每段开头(除第一段已给了外)第一句话必须把该段写作提纲中的主要的词或主要意思包括进去，这就是段落中心句。每段其他句子必须紧扣该段的段落中心句，与段落中心句无关的句子或关系不大的句子必须坚决删去。由于写作提纲中所给的3个要点(即关键词)已包括在每段开头的段落中心句(即每段开头的第一句)中，而每段的其他句子又紧扣段落中心句，这就使每段的内容紧扣主题，而不至离开主题去谈别的问题，这就是抓住主题的关键。

英语写作少不了积累句型。以下是小编带来的2017英语写作必背经典句型【集锦】，希望对你有帮助。

the + 形容词最高级 + n. + (that) + S(主语) + have ever seen / known / heard / had / read, etc

例句：Helen is the most beautiful girl that I have ever seen.

(海伦是我见过的最美丽的女孩。)

Nothing is + 形容词比较级 + than to + V(谓语)

例句：Nothing is more important than to receive education.

(没有比接受教育更重要的事。)

S cannot emphasize the importance of sth. too much：再怎么强调……的重要性也不为过。

例句：We cannot emphasize the importance of protecting our eyes too much.

(我们再怎么强调保护眼睛的重要性也不为过。)

There is no doubt + that + 句子：毫无疑问，……

例句：There is no doubt that the economy is recovering.

(毫无疑问，经济已经逐渐复苏。)

It pays to + V + O(宾语)：……是值得的。

例句：It pays to help others.

(帮助别人是值得的。)

An advantage of + 名词结构+ is that + 句子：……的优点是……

例句：An advantage of using solar energy is that it wont create any pollution.

(使用太阳能的优点是它不会产生任何污染。)

There is no denying that + 句子：不可否认……

例句：There is no denying that the quality of our life has gone from good to better.

(不可否认，我们的生活质量日益改善。)

On no account can we + V：我们绝对不能……

例句：On no account can we ignore the value of knowledge.

(我们绝不能无视知识的价值。)

It is universally acknowledged that + 句子：全世界都知道……

例句：It is universally acknowledged that trees are indispensable[不可或缺的] to us.

(全世界都知道树木对我们是不可或缺的。)

The reason why + 句子 + is that + 句子：……的原因是……

例句：The reason why we have to grow trees is that they can provide us with fresh air.

(我们必须种树的原因是它们能给我们提供新鲜空气。)

be closely related to sth.：与……息息相关

例句：Taking exercise is closely related to health.

(做运动与健康息息相关。)

So + 形容词 + be + S + that + 句子：如此……以致于……

例句：So precious is time that we cant afford to waste it.

(时间是如此珍贵，它经不起我们浪费。)

It is time + S + 动词过去式：该是……的时候了。

例句：It is time the authorities concerned took proper steps to solve the traffic problems.

(有关当局是时候采取适当措施解决交通问题了。)

S + enable + O + to + V：……使……能够……

例句：Listening to music enables us to feel relaxed.

(听音乐使我们获得放松。)

be + forced / obliged / compelled + to + V：不得不……

例句：Since the examination is around the corner, I am compelled to give up doing sports.

(既然考试迫在眉睫，我不得不放弃做运动。)

a. + as + S + be, S + V + O：虽然……， 但是……

例句：Rich as our country is, the quality of our life is by no means satisfactory.

(虽然我们的国家富有，但我们的生活质量仍差强人意。)

It is conceivable / obvious / apparent that + 句子：可想而知/明显/显然……

例句：It is apparent that knowledge plays an important role in our life.

(显然，知识在我们人生中扮演着重要角色。)

The + 形容词比较级 + S + V, the + 形容词比较级 + S + V：……愈……，……愈……

例句：The harder you work, the more progress you make.

(愈努力，愈进步。)

Since + S + 动词过去式，S + 现在完成式： 自从……，……一直……

例句：Since he went to senior high school, he has worked very hard.

(自从上了高中，他一直很用功。)

By + V-ing, S can V：通过……，……能够……

例句：By taking exercise, we can always stay healthy.

(通过做运动，我们能够保持健康。)

be based on sth.：以.……为基础

例句：Progress in society is based on harmony.

(社会的进步是以和谐为基础的。)

That is the reason why +句子：那就是……的原因

例句：Summer is sultry[闷热的]. That is the reason why I dont like it.

(夏天很闷热。那就是我不喜欢它的原因。)

There is no one but + V + O：没有人不……

例句：There is no one but longs to go to college.

(没有人不渴望上大学。)

Due to / Owing to / Thanks to + sth. / V-ing：因为/ 多亏……

例句：Thanks to his encouragement, I finally realized my dream.

(因为他的鼓励，我终于实现了梦想。)

For the past + 时间, S + 现在完成式： 过去的……来，……一直……

例句：For the past two years, I have been busy preparing for the examination.

(过去两年来，我一直忙着准备考试。)

What a + a. + n. + S + V!= How + a. + a + n. + V!：多么……!

例句：What an important thing it is to keep our promise! / How important a thing it is to keep our promise! (遵守诺言是多么重要的事!)

get into the habit of + V-ing = make it a rule to + V：养成……的习惯

例句：We should get into the habit of keeping good hours.

(我们应该养成早睡早起的习惯。)

leave much to be desired：令人不满意

例句：The condition of our traffic leaves much to be desired.

(我们的交通状况令人不太满意。)

Those who + V + O：那些……的人

例句：Those who violate traffic regulations should be punished.

(违反交通规定的人应该受处罚。)

have a great influence on sth.：对……有很大影响

例句：Smoking has a great influence on our health.

(抽烟对我们的健康有很大影响。)

spare no effort to + V：不遗余力地……

例句：We should spare no effort to beautify our environment.

(我们应该不遗余力地美化我们的环境。)

do good / harm to sth.：对……有益/有害

例句：Reading does good to our mind.

(读书对心灵有益。)

pose a great threat to sth.：对……造成很大威胁

例句：Pollution poses a great threat to our existence.

(污染对我们的生存造成很大威胁。)

bring home to + S + O：让……明白……

例句：We should bring home to people the value of working hard.

(我们应该让人们明白努力的价值。)

do ones utmost to + V = do ones best to + V：尽全力去……

例句：We should do our utmost to achieve our goal in life.

(我们应尽全力去达成我们的人生目标。)

一、表达方式：记叙、描写、抒情、说明、议论?

二、表现手法：象征、对比、烘托、设置悬念、前后呼应、欲扬先抑、托物言志、借物抒情、联想、想象、衬托(正衬、反衬)

三、修辞手法：比喻、拟人、夸张、排比、对偶、引用、设问、反问、反复、互文、对比、借代、反语?

四、记叙文六要素：时间、地点、人物、事情的起因、经过、结果

五、记叙顺序：顺叙、倒叙、插叙?六、描写角度：正面描写、侧面描写?

七、描写人物的方法：语言、动作、神态、心理、外貌

八、描写景物的角度：视觉、听觉、味觉、触觉?

九、描写景物的方法：动静结合(以动写静)、概括与具体相结合、由远到近(或由近到远)?

十、描写(或抒情)方式：正面(又叫直接)、反面(又叫间接)

十一、叙述方式：概括叙述、细节描写

十二、说明顺序：时间顺序、空间顺序、逻辑顺序

十三、说明方法：举例子、列数字、打比方、作比较、下定义、分类别、作诠释、摹状貌、引用?

十四、小说情节四部分：开端、发展、高潮、结局

十五、小说三要素：人物形象、故事情节、具体环境

十六、环境描写分为：自然环境、社会环境

十七、议论文三要素：论点、论据、论证

十八、论据分类为：事实论据、道理论据

十九、论证方法：举例(或事实)论证、道理论证(有时也叫引用论证)、对比(或正反对比)论证、比喻论证

二十、论证方式：立论、驳论(可反驳论点、论据、论证)

二十一、议论文的文章的结构：总分总、总分、分总;分的部分常常有并列式、递进式。

二十二、引号的作用：引用;强调;特定称谓;否定、讽刺、反语

二十三、破折号用法：提示、注释、总结、递进、话题转换、插说。

二十四、其他：

苏东坡的名句：“横看成林侧成峰，远近高低各不同”，告诉我们善于变换角度，会见到不同的景象。文章的“变脸”在于根据题意在视角上做到寻找与选择的问题。首先是要寻找感觉和记忆，选取那些能激起写作冲动的材料。其次是选择角度，如果你对每个视角以及具体内容都掌握了，那么就可以从中选一个最适合的，反之选择的范围就极有限。

例文《头发之美》是写母爱的伟大，这类文章已有许多人写过了。但本文作者却寻找与选择了母亲头发的视角来作描写与渲染，写出了新意。你看，母亲的头发散发出柠檬草的清香，但随着岁月的流逝，黑发中冒出了白发，就如自己成长的烙印，那头发之美就蕴含在母亲是帮着撑起我世界的人，那头发间柠檬草的香味依然迷人。读罢全文，母爱的伟大是多么富有震撼力和感染力。由此可见，抓住人物的某个特征来变换视角，其表情达意的效果会迥然不同。

例文：头发之美

我俯下身，闻到你头发里柠檬草的清香，妈妈，每当我一遍一遍用手指抚过你发丝的时候，我总觉得，那头发是世间的美丽。

小时候，我头发长及腰处，你每天早早地帮我把头发打理好。你用梳子在温水里浸一下。一下一下地理着我的长发。我总是一梳就叫疼，你却总是无动于衷地继续着。

流年偷换，我的长发如杂草般疯长，我把它剪了。你常站在镜子前面，拔弄着你齐耳的短发。你叹口气说，哎，有白头发了，我那一刻只是很吃惊。我的妈妈，怎样的妈妈，我从心里发出了深情的呼唤。我是一个受了委屈回家就抱着妈妈哭的人，没事就撒娇和妈妈粘在一起的人，我的世界永远被她撑着。你的眼神不必游离，不必逃避，我已读懂你眼里的伤悲，还有你若隐若现的浅笑轻颦。

直到我帮你拔头发的时候，那时，我真不敢相信我掀开你头发深处时，会有那么多的白头发冒出来，白头发，我讨厌这三个亵渎的字眼。你怎么……我的声音有几分颤抖。“太辛苦了”，你说得如此轻松，淡定。我不敢动你的头发，我怕弄痛了你，我又想起小时候你帮我梳头的样子，很久以后我才发现，觉得梳子好重。我觉得我该补回你些什么，我的头发，岁月或快乐。

我情不自禁说，妈妈，你以前有没有留过长发呀。你说，当然，还很喜欢留长头发。自古女子，无不惜发如金，但又有谁可以偷溜过岁月的羁绊。你如今头上丝丝的白发，就如我成长的烙印，一点一滴，你用你的光辉色彩，来润色我的岁岁年年，不过，不要皱眉头，不要伤感，那才是最最美丽的。那像是中国画中的皱笔，棱角分明，墨韵淋漓其中浅吟低唱。那又如一种烟淡云疏的滋味，濡染着你发间的香气，使发丝更加轻盈。

少壮能几时，鬓发各已苍。所以，那很美丽，如琵琶乐曲。就算哪一天，黑发会沦为一片空白，也将是我心中的一片圣洁。就像你永远是我的好妈妈，帮着撑起我世界的人。

让我们回到开头：我俯下身，闻到你头发间柠檬草的香味，其实，那头发是世间的美丽。

今天小编为大家准备了高考作文写作技巧,希望对同学们有所帮助。

一、审准话题

审题是作文成败的第一关，差之毫厘，谬以千里。应试时应慎重。审题准确，作文就有可能踏上成功之路;审题失误，写得再好，最多也只能得一半左右的分数。就近几年的“话题作文”而言，审准题意就是要对作文试题上展现的“材料、提示语、话题、作文要求”(即通常所说的背景语、启发语、话题语、强调语)的各个部分仔细审读揣摩，全面确切地理解文题的所有含意，这是理解话题作文的关键。具体方法为：第一步，读“背景语”和“启发语”，巧借“启发语”的提示，弄清“背景语”的隐含意义，弄懂题目要求写的就是“话题语”。第二步，弄清“强调语”有哪些要求，即弄清立意、文体、拟题、字数等要求。第三步，应围绕“话题”组材、选材，扣住话题的实质。为确保“符合题意”，在写作时，尽可能在开头点，中间提，结尾扣，这样，写就平稳的扣题文应该不成问题。

二、选妥文体

“文体自选”，不是多种文体的综合，而是为考生提供选择最擅长文体的自由。一旦选择了某种文体，写出来的文章就应该具备这种文体的特征，从而做到“符合文体要求”，而不是“四不像”。那么怎样选择文体呢?这就要根据作文的“提示语”和“要求”来考虑。若需要通过自己忆、记、闻，或涉及写人物、事件、景物、场面时，一般应选择记叙文;若需要介绍、说明事物的形状、性质、成因、关系、功用时，就应选择说明文;若需要阐述主张、表明观点，自然选择议论文。如果有的内容兼用几种体裁都可以时，就要根据自己的实际需要确定采用的文体。但不管采用什么样的文体，都要因文而异、因人而异，要充分发挥自己的优势，展示自己的才华。比如，擅长形象思维，会编故事，善于记叙、描写的同学，可选择记叙文，甚至可以选小说、童话等文学体裁;擅长推理，逻辑思维强的同学，则可选择议论文。

三、立意创新

古人云：“意高则文胜。”高考作文立意，正确是前提，但要达到我们所说的“成功”，则还要力求“深邃、高远”。判断一篇作文的立意是否深邃、高远、有创新，可从以下几方面来看：①文章有没有在深度上有所建树，在某个方面或某些方面是不是有超越大众化的见解，甚至创见。②有没有对自然、社会和人类的关注。③有没有深远的历史感与现实感。④有没有预见性。⑤有没有健康的审美情趣与高尚的情操。⑥有没有哲理性的思考……考生要在考场上写出令人耳目一新的佳作确非易事。文章要想出新，立意必须新奇。首先，要有超越一般的眼光，有时代责任感，意志坚定，情趣高尚。其次，要有历史感和预见性，能透析事理，升华哲理。再次，要从多角度联想，对同一事物从不同角度进行思考，寻求多种答案，从中选择最新最佳的角度来立意。此外，还要从个人独特的生活经历中选取素材，写别人所未写，立别人所未立

四、拟靓标题

题好一半文。标题是文章的眼睛，是让阅卷老师慧眼为之一亮的第一点。遇到“题目自拟”的作文话题，最好不要直接引用话题做标题，要尽力展示个人才华，尽量拟出让阅卷老师“一见钟情”的好标题，为获取高分奠定基础。好的标题应该是准确、简洁、新颖、别致，耀眼夺目，富有文采。拟题方法主要有①巧用修辞，如《让孤独飘飞》。②引用诗词、歌曲，如《我心中，你最重》。③改装名作，如《道德苦旅》。④术语嫁接，如《心灵比色卡》。⑤妙用标点，如《学生上网：喜耶?忧耶?》。⑥巧用数字，如《父爱“二十三”》。⑦巧借公式，如《天赋+努力=成功》等。但不论怎样拟写，都要注意锤炼词语，切合主旨。

五、合理选材

在作文中，材料往往承载和反映作者的思想、情感、观点，因此，应选择具有文化气息、蕴含人生哲理、闪耀情感光华、积极健康、引人向善、启人心智的材料。具体来说，应做到两点。一要精当。所谓“精当”，是指所选用的材料能有效地恰如其分地表现主题，没有偏离之感，没有叠加之嫌，更没有虚假之疑。二要“新颖”，即所选材料应具有时代气息，能反映社会的“热点”与“亮点”，有生活色彩，有个性特征，有独到的发现等。从范围及方式上，选材可收揽古今、链接中外、紧扣时政要闻、钻探书籍、“播放”影视、“过滤”生活。总之，要根据话题，用大视野去搜寻，大浪淘沙般筛选，选出有深意、典型、鲜活、切合主旨的材料进行写作。

六、巧妙布局

布局关系到文章的整体质量，所以写作时应认真勾画文章经纬，做到“结构完整”，力求“构思精巧”。①可采用“题记+正文”的形式，结构全文。好的题记具有意蕴丰厚、情味绵长、语言精美等特点。巧设题记可以开宗明旨，可以创设情境，也可以展露才情，它能一下子拨动阅卷者的心弦，对你的文章顿生好感。②可采用“母题+标题”的形式。把一个大的话题或意旨切分成三至四个既有内在联系又各具独立性的部分，并配以精当的小标题，既可以收到化整为零、各个击破的写作实效，也可以给阅卷者以结构清晰、脉络分明的良好印象。③可采用“引言+正文”的形式。好的引言，能升华思想感情的火花、生活哲理的闪光和人生意义的感悟，起到画龙点睛的作用。④也可采用数字化分节，一目了然，自然流畅。此外，语段上要错落匀称，长短相间，也能使文章体现一种建筑美。

七、精心开篇

古人云：“通篇之纲领在首段，首段得势，则通篇皆佳。”因而，我们必须精心开篇涂彩，力求让阅卷老师一见倾心。作文毕竟是个认识美、发现美、感悟美和创造美的过程及其具体的体现，阅卷老师只有从你文章的开篇中获得审美意趣，才能在这种情感的作用下给你高分。开头方法常见的有：①开门见山，开宗明义。②描写环境，引出人物。③特写镜头，勾人心魄。④设置悬念，引人入胜。⑤编述故事，饶有情趣。⑥设疑发问，促人深省。⑦欲扬先抑，步步为营。⑧巧引名言、歌词、谚语等。但无论哪种开头，都要以新颖独到、别致小巧的简约文字，提纲挈领，自然引起下文。

八、写好结尾

“编筐编篓，重在收口”。作文也一样，不可轻视。写得不好，会使文章结构松散，黯然失色;写得好，则可以使文章结构严谨，大添异彩，从而收到“回眸一笑百媚生”的效果。总的来说，文章结尾应简明有力，留有余韵，让人流连忘返。就内容而言，可采用启迪人心的结尾、诗情画意的结尾、促膝谈心的结尾、照应开头的结尾、激励号召的结尾、卒章显志的结尾等;就形式而言，可采用问句式、引用式、抒情式、点睛式、呼告式、比喻式、反复式、排比式等不同形式的结尾。具体要根据文体、内容和需要决定。但不管使用什么样的结尾，都要使主旨更鲜明，结构更严谨，内容更富有文彩、更有创新意识，使文章更具魅力、更吸引人。

九、美化语言

语言不仅是作文思想内容的载体，更是阅卷者产生美感的契机。语言是否有亮点，是否有出彩之处，将直接影响印象分的判给。所以，在写作中要用自己最好的语言，让阅卷者在愉悦中对你的作文产生一种“偏爱”。怎样的语言才是最好的语言呢?活泼的、有灵气的、富有表现力的，能给人以审美享受的，能感染人打动人的语言才是最好的语言。美化语言的方法主要有：①可用修辞手法装扮，使之富有韵味。比喻、排比、对比、夸张、比拟等修辞手法的综合运用，可以收到新颖含蓄的奇妙功效。②可用变化的语言装扮，使之摇曳多姿。如采撷新词新义为文章增添鲜明的时代气息;创新语言，在汉语语言规则允许的范围内作新意搭配，使语言显得奇崛;变动语序，加强表达效果，令语言焕然一新;变换句式，长长短短、整整散散、节奏变化，语言的韵律美自然生成……③可用流行话语装扮，使之灵动活泼。同时，能起到化平淡为神奇的功效。④可用智慧的话语装扮，使之更有内涵。智慧的话语(包括幽默的话和蕴含哲理的话)，在作文中恰当运用，不但使文章增添分量，更让埋头苦批的阅卷老师开心笑一回，实实在在地轻松一回，从而会不经意地给你记上一功。⑤可用古诗词装扮，使之尽显才气。可直接引用穿插在行文中，为文章增色添辉;或间接变用，机智地使它适合行文的要求;也可在它触发下写出诗情画意或意蕴深厚的文字来。

十、注重文面

文面是给评卷者的第一印象。作文卷面情况的好坏，直接影响着评卷老师的情绪。有的考生文章写得不错，卷面却东拉一下、西抹一下，让人见了就没有好感，无形中加大了失分因素。所以我们在写作中必须注重文面质量。具体地说做到“三清”、“三适”、“三要”、“三不要”。“三清”就是卷面清洁，字迹清楚，笔画清晰;“三适”，就是书写认真，快慢适可;字写在方格中间，大小适中;均匀落笔，轻重适度。“三要”，就是时间要控制在一小时以内，每小节前要空两格，字数要达到规定要求。“三不要”，就是用吃得准的字，不要写错别字;用规范字，不要写繁体字或不规范的简化字;标点符号应灵活运用，不要一逗到底。

下面是由小编整理的高分英语作文技巧，欢迎阅读。

要点+结构+逻辑+语法+亮点

要点：实际上中考[微博]英语写作就等于两个字，翻译!因为中考英语写作一般会给出几个要点，要求必须在文章中有所体现。文章写的再好，只要缺少要点就会扣分。所以要点，也就是文章的第二段内容，要做到全，围绕中心。

结构：中考最流行的结构就是三段式，深受各地区中考英语写作阅卷老师的喜爱。为什么尼?因为这种结构十分清晰。“观点——要点——总结”让人一目了然。三段式的第一段：简单明了，开门见山，不超过2句话，如，我们想表达小强很强壮，第一段直接说XQis extremely strong。观点明确，这一句足矣。

第二段：分2-3点说为什么他强壮。1. 每天吃10顿饭，He has ten mealseveryday!详举吃的是什么。2. 每天运动2小时，He does exercise 2 hours a day!详举做了什么运动。

第三段：经过第二段的论证，可以得出结论。但请注意，不能完全照抄第一段，要有升华。也可以提出希望和建议等。如，Howstrong and robust XQ is!I hope to be him one day!

逻辑：这里的逻辑实际指的就是逻辑词。最常用的就是表示递进的，转折的，总结的逻辑词等。递进：除了first，second，third，finally等还可以使用高级点的，如first of all(首先)，in addition，whatsmore，moreover(都是另外的意思)，in a word，all inall(表示总结的)。转折：but，yet，however等。真正有经验的阅卷老师会很注意这些逻辑连接词，因为这些词体现了这个文章的思路。

语法：其他几点都不是硬性的要求，不那样做不能说是错，只能说是不好，但是语法却是硬性的。如，单词的使用，时态等。

亮点：当我们将前八个字都做得很完美的时候也只能得到一个二等文的上。要想得到一等文，最后两个字，亮点至关重要。大家设想如果我们是阅卷老师。有两篇写人美丽的作文摆在我们面前，都是结构清晰的三段式，要点都很全，都用了一些逻辑词，都没有语法错误，但是A篇只用了beautiful，good-looking，B篇却用到了attractive，charming，catching等，我坚信正常人都会给B篇高分的。这些高级一点的词汇，词组，句型便是我们得到一等文的最有力的绝招。所以，以后写英语作文要养成一般词汇限量用的好习惯。

导语：小学生在写作的过程有什么样的技巧可以运用呢？以下是小编为大家分享的小学话题作文写作技巧，欢迎借鉴！

话题作文的写作

在以上三个主要特点中，最主要的是“范围宽泛”这个特点，由于“范围宽泛”，给写作者提供了更广泛的发挥空间，有利于写作者表现个性特征，有利于选拔人才。可以说，以话题作文作为高考作文主要题型之一，是高考作文命题成熟的表现。

要想写好话题作文，首先要善于“化大为小”。话题作文的写作范围那么宽泛，如果仅把话题当作一个僵死的的概念，看为“铁板一块，不可分割”的整体，笼而统之去做文章，势必内容空泛、文意散漫。所以，写好话题作文的第一个本事是“目无全牛”，善于在一个大的、宽泛的范围内，“择其一点，不及其余”，也就是只写“大范围”中的“某一方面”，给自己提供了一个充分发挥、具体表现的好舞台，这样才能在800字左右的篇幅内写出立意鲜明集中、内容具体充实好文章。注意：不求“面面俱到”，只求“一针见血”。拿2000年高考作文来说，要把“答案是丰富多彩的”这样一个大范围“化而小之”，变为一个具体的小范围，例如可以写“生活态度”方面的，也可以写“辨明是非”方面的，“意识转变”“思维方式”“教育改革”“道德修养”“人物评价”“历史反思”“职业选择”“个性发展”等等方面的都可以写，这样，“化大为小”，“化空为实”，文章才能“出彩”，才能出现题材多样、迭彩纷呈的好局面。再拿下面一个话题作文为例：请以“压力”为话题，自拟题目，写一篇不少于800字的作文。要善于“以问领写”：“什么可以构成压力？”“有没有压力？”“压力来自何方？”“压力带来什么？”“怎样对待压力？”等等，然后自己回答这些问题，从这些回答中选择一二来写文章，达到“化大为小”的目的。可以写压力来自过重负担，也可以写压力来自责任感；可以写压力的从无到有，也可以写压力的从有到无；可以写压力来自外界，也可以写压力来自自身；可以写在重压下喘不过气来，也可以写变压力为动力；可以写要善于自我减压，也可以写“把压力放在肩上，不要放在心上”等等。要选择其中一个来写，不要贪多，否则会造成东拉西扯，空谈漫议。

提醒注意：善于“化大为小”，还要善于“以小见大”，从小的方面表现深刻的主题。这就要求我们在选择“小的方面”的时候，注意所选方面的“现实性、针对性、典型性”。

写好话题作文的第二个本事是“独辟蹊径，表现个性”。《考试

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

我们在写看图作文的时候应该抓住那些要点呢，下面是小编整理的写好看图作文技巧，欢迎阅读。

写看图作文要先观察后写文。先想好文章的中心。然后围绕着中心具体地写。

看图作文是根据图画形象，把图画的内容和思想意义表述出来，叙述清楚的一种作文训练方式。经常进行看图作文的训练，能锻炼同学们的观察、判断、想象和表达能力。

看图作文的内容是丰富多彩的。怎样写好这次看图作文呢?

首先要认真细致地观察图画，努力把握图画的内容实质，摸清图画作者的绘图意 图，抓准中心思想。观察时要认真、细致地观察画面出现的人、物、景，弄清画面各部分之间的关系。如画中人物的姿态、表情、服饰、事物和环境、景物的特点。画面的主体人物形象是表达中心的关键，我们还可能通过分析画面的主体人物形象发掘图画的中心思想。

其次，要根据图画内容进行合理的联想和想象。看图作文是要展开联想和想象的，没有联想和想象，文章就会缺乏深度和广度。

最后，还要注意语言表达方式。看图作文的语言应当丰富生动，不能局限在叙述、的人、物、景串连起来，使“静”变“动”，使“死”变“活”，描绘出一幅有声有色，有情有景的活生生的画面。看图写文主要采用叙述、描写和抒情等方式，当然也可以进行适当的说明，这样才能使文章内容得到准确、生动、形象的体现。

“好的开端是成功的一半”。开头在文章中的作用十分重要。小编收集了中考作文写作技巧，作文开头技巧，欢迎阅读。

1.落笔入题，总领全篇

例1.小时候，对印在连环画、贺卡上那些“挥着翅膀的孩子——天使”爱得痴迷。那纯洁的，绒棉似的白翅膀是一切美好的象征，它装饰着我儿时的梦。(重庆满分文《白翅膀装饰着我的梦……》开头)

这篇文章一开头就交代自己喜欢白翅膀，并用“它装饰着我儿时的梦”既照应文题，又领起下文。这种开头能给人干脆利落，入题快捷，不枝不蔓的感觉。应为考场作文开头的首选方法。

2.序引题记，醒人耳目

例2.叶子，是不会飞翔的翅膀;翅膀，是落在天上的叶子。(重庆满分文《翅膀，落在天上的叶子》题记)

这个题记采用比喻的方法来揭示“翅膀”和“叶子”的关系。“翅膀”和“叶子”怎么可以划上等于号呢?这个疑问，犹如一个谜团，一下子勾起阅读者的好奇心，只有当你读完全文才知道这是一篇“丑小鸭变成小天鹅”翻版的童话故事，作者用一个落叶代替“丑小鸭”，写他的无悔选择，写他的执著梦想，写他的美好心灵，新颖独到，让人耳目一新。

3.写景烘托，渲染心情

例3.又是炎夏了，开始有知了叫了。(北京满分文《动力来自那双眸子》开头)

这篇文章不落别人窠臼，独辟蹊径，从小处切入，从一双具体可见、可感的“眸子”切入，来写一位数学教师的目光情感的传达，给班上的每一位学生所带来的阳光般的温暖和突飞式的进步。此处开头的自然环境描写，既渲染了特定的气氛，衬托了人物的心情，又推动了故事情节的发展。

4.巧用对比，说明问题

例4.早晨8点刚过，一位怒容满面的妈妈就扯着一个个子高高的男孩推开了张教授办公室的门。一进门，妈妈就开始向张教授数落孩子的不是。而那个男孩似乎满不在乎，总是抬着头看天花板，身体还在不停地晃动着。时不时的还回上一句表示反对。(山东莱芜满分文《其实并不是这样》)

文章开头大肆渲染母亲眼中孩子的“不好”，可到了教授那里，教授反而轻易地就指出了孩子的“优点”，这样的对比，只能说明一点，其实并不是孩子不好，是“母亲”的眼光有问题，教育孩子的思想有问题。

5.反向立意，别出心裁

例5.我是魔鬼，是一个心中住着天使的魔鬼。(山东滨州满分文〈让天使永驻心中〉开头)

文章题目是“让天使永驻心中”，可开头就是一句“我是魔鬼”，让人感觉奇怪。再往下，第个段落的开头句都是“我是魔鬼”，一直到最后，细读才会领略到此反向立意的妙处是在突出“安琪儿”。

6.角度新颖，情理交融

例6.“王蜂一口针，橘子两边分。世间痛恨事，最毒淫妇心。”自从《水浒》一问世，人们便拿此评价其中的人物——潘金莲。这个人物形象成了人们心目中心狠手毒的“淫妇”、“荡妇”的典型。

潘金莲你实在是冤枉啊!(山东莱芜满分文《其实并不是这样》开头)

小作者将人们熟悉的《水浒》故事写入作文，读来却不觉重复。此处引用《水浒》开头，巧妙引出议论对象——潘金莲，既显自己的文化底蕴，又能将此与自己的观点形成对比，合情合理。

7.句式工整，含蓄蕴藉

例7.曾经留恋“秦王扫六合，虎视何雄哉”的英雄幸福，曾经追求“采菊东篱下，悠然见南山”的隐士幸福;也曾经探寻“会当凌绝顶，一览众山小”的志士幸福。但是我毕竟是我，我要去采撷最美丽的幸福，来点缀无悔的青春!于是，我乘上幸福专列，开始了寻找幸福的路程。(山东济宁满分文《乘上幸福的列车》开头)

文章开头诗文的引用，使文章的语言古雅流畅而充满诗意，意蕴丰腴而耐人寻味。

8.比喻扣题，主旨凸现

例8.每个人降临人世时都没有翅膀，惟有读书才能使生命飞翔。(重庆满分文《读书——生命飞翔的羽翼》开头)

这章的思路相当开阔，一般人很少将读书和“翅膀”话题联系在一起，考生一开头以比喻句“每个人降临人世时都没有翅膀，惟有读书才能使生命飞翔”开启下文，很好地凸现了文章的主旨“读书——生命飞翔的羽翼”。

9.起兴开头，直奔主题

例9.雄鹰拥有翅膀，就能展翅高飞;飞机拥有翅膀，就能翱翔蓝天。我也幻想有一对翅膀，风雨中让我展翅飞翔，没有谁能把我阻挡飞越世界的梦想。(重庆满分文《假如给我一双翅膀》开头)

此开头由雄鹰、飞机起兴，倾诉“我”对梦想的执著之情，为下文描绘那些拥有翅膀的种种理由设置了悬念。

10.排比开头，注入诗韵

例11.云卷云舒，卷舒的是心灵的纯净无暇;雁过雁往，过往的是人性的清姿丽影;花开花落，开落的是灵魂的郁秀芬芳。(山东日照满分文《给我一个懂你的机会》)

作者文笔优美，此开头选取了自然界中几个画面进行描写，用语典押，句式整齐，朗朗上口，富有韵味。

11.一线串珠，珠珠润丰

例11.幸福是什么?(山东济宁满分文《幸福小语》)

文章以“幸福是什么?”开头，独句成段，发人深思，引起下文。下文分别用“司马迁说”“陶潜说”“李太白说”“刘禹锡说”“陈景润说”“林肯说”“甘地说”“我说”来高度概括8个人的幸福观，起到了“万箭攒射”的效果。作者丰厚的积累可见一斑。

12.论坛形式，新奇无比

例12.【主题帖子】幸福是什么?幸福是微笑着的闪着泪光的双眼;是耳边亲切的问候;是孩子们在沙滩上玩耍;是风烛残年的老人携手夕阳;是全家人围成一桌在中秋之夜享受天伦……一千个人对“幸福”就会有一千种诠释，正象一千读者眼中有一千个“哈姆雷特”。(不信请到“幸福”论坛里转一转。)(天津满分文《论坛里的“幸福水”》开头)

此开头从论坛“主题帖子”开始，用设问句引起读者注意，用排比句巧作道理论证，用“一千个人对‘幸福’就会有一千种诠释，正象一千读者眼中有一千个‘哈姆雷特’”概括自己对幸福的观点。新鲜的形式，巧妙的开头，实在是高招!

对联，俗称对子，雅称楹联。它言简意深，对仗工整，平仄协调，是一字一音的汉语语言独特的艺术形式。对联形式多样，有正对、反对、流水对、联球对、集句对等。但不管何类对联，使用何种形式，都必须具备以下特点：

一、要字数相等，断句一致。

二、要平仄相合，音调和谐。

最基本的要求是“仄(即声调三、四声)起平(即声调一、二声)落”，即上联末句尾字用仄声，下联末句尾字用平声。

三、要词性相对，位置相同。

一般称为“虚对虚，实对实”，就是名词对名词，动词对动词，形容词对形容词，数量词对数量词，副词对副词，而且相对的词必须在相同的位置上。

四、要内容相关，上下衔接。

上下联的含义必须相互衔接，但又不能重复。

著名的对联:

1、

风声、雨声、读书声,声声入耳;

家事、国事、天下事,事事关心。

2、

能攻心则反侧自消,从古知兵非好战;

不审势即宽严皆误,后来治蜀要深思。

3、

横眉冷对千夫指,

俯首甘为孺子牛。

4、

有志者事竟成破釜沉舟百二秦关终属楚，

苦心人天不负卧薪尝胆三千越甲可吞吴。

5、

假作真时真亦假,

无为有处有还无。

6、

海水朝朝朝朝朝朝朝落;

浮云长长长长长长长消。

如何才能写好2016中考作文呢？如下有四个写作技巧分享给大家参考！

技巧一、必须抓住特征

所谓特征，就是指事物所具有的独特的地方。任何事物都有各自的特征，这也是它区别于其它事物的主要标志。要准确地反映事物的本来面目，必须抓住事物的特征。《活板》介绍我国古代的印刷术，就当时说："活板"这种印刷术的主要特征是"活".因而文章在介绍中自始至终抓住了这个特征，把活板的印刷历史、制作方法和使用方法，介绍得十分清楚，使读者有了确切的了解。能不能抓住事物的特征，主要取决于作者对事物有没有细致的观察和深入的研究。这就要求在寻找事物的特征时，要注意两点：一是要对该事物进行仔细、深刻的观察;二是要进行认真比较，只有比较，才容易发现事物独特的一面。例如《玉雕》写了三匹马的姿态：前面的一匹黑马："三蹄腾空，回首后顾，神态略显紧张";中间的一匹白马："体态轻盈，前两蹄蹬着地面，后两蹄蹬着两块玉石，奋起若飞奔状，尾巴好似一团白云浮在空中";最后的一匹黑马："嘴唇紧闭，把头高高地昂起，四蹄蹬在玉板上……脖子上的鬃毛一律竖起".三匹奔马，各有各的特点。作者正是通过观察、比较，抓住了它们的特征，才写出了这篇成功之作。

说明事物表面上的特征，只能是读者对事物外部的特征获得印象;说明事物本质的特征才能是读者进一步获得比较深刻的认识。如《向沙漠进军》一文，在说明沙漠危害人类之后，接着根据沙漠的特点指出：它逞强施威的"武器"是"风"和"沙","进攻的方式"是风沙袭击和沙丘移动。我们采取的抵御办法是"培育防护林"和"植林种草".但这只是守势，不能从根本上解决问题。文章接着指出，"征服沙漠的主要武器是水",有了充足的水源，向沙漠进军就会取得彻底胜利。这就指出了"风沙"、"植林种草"和"水源"三者之间的内在联系，也就说明了征服沙漠的本质问题。可是，为什么过去人类长期受害，却没有能征服沙漠呢?这是因为人类征服沙漠的远大理想只有在社会主义制度下才有实现的可能。这就进一步从社会方面说明了问题的本质。说明文只有透过现象，揭示本质，才能使读者对事物获得比较深刻的认识。

技巧二、合理安排顺序

事物大多是具有复杂性的，必须从多方面去介绍，才能讲清楚它的特征。依据事物本身固有的条理，是将说明文写得条理清楚的根本保证。事物本身固有的条理顺序，一般说来，有以下几种：

(1)空间顺序。是指按照物品的空间方位进行说明。或由远及近，由近及远;或由内到外，由外到内;或由上到下，由下到上;或由前到后，由后到前等等。说明物品的形状、构造，一般采用这种顺序。《玉雕》，由前到后，一一介绍三匹马的姿态，用的就是空间顺序。

(2)时间顺序。是指按照时间发展的先后进行说明，先发生的先说，后发生的后说。说明事物发展变化的过程，往往采用这种顺序。如《看云识天气》中有一段描写天气的变化，由晴转阴，由阴转雨(雪)有时间先后的顺序，天空的云随着这个时间的推移，也变化着不同的形态：卷云--卷层云--雨层云。就是按时间先后的顺序写的。

(3)逻辑顺序。是指按照事物内部的联系和人们认识事物的规律来安排说明的顺序。由整体到部分，由主要到次要，由浅入深，由简到繁，由具体到抽象，由现象到本质等，因此，说明文作者在考虑文章思路时也必须符合这些认识规律，才能使自己的文章正确地反映人们对客观世界的认识过程，同时又能适应读者的接受能力和欣赏习惯。如《大自然的语言》说明物候现象来临的因素，共写了三段：第一段说，"首先是纬度",第二段指出，"经度的差异是影响物候第二个因素",第三段指出，"影响物候的第三个因素是高下的差异".这个层次顺序的安排，就是由主次决定的。

以上说的是三种较为常见的说明顺序。应当指出的是，不要把这三种安排顺序的方法看成固定的格式。事物是千变万化的，人们的认识是多角度的，说明的顺序经常随着说明对象的改变而改变，是允许的，也是正常的。总之，说明事物要做到"言之有序",文章才能脉络分明，层次清楚，使读者一目了然。

技巧三、选择说明方法

说明事物的方法很多，常用的有：

(1)下定义。用简明的语言指出被说明对象的本质特征，把那些容易与之相混的对象同它区别开来，叫下定义。如"统筹方法，是一种安排工作进程的数学方法".

(2)分类别。把被说明对象按一定的标准分成不同的类别，一类一类地加以说明，叫分类别。如《食物从何处来》把生物获得食物的途径和方法划分为"自养"和"异养"两类，然后分别说明。

(3)举例子。举出实例进行说明，使内容具体化，叫举例子。《中国石拱桥》通过介绍赵州桥和芦沟桥，使人们具体了解中国石拱桥的特点，用的就是举例子的说明方法。

(4)列数字。用准确的数据说明事物的某些方面，这种方法叫列数字。如"笔全长13.5厘米，笔身约占3/5,笔帽约占2/5.顶端的活动小枢纽能自由伸出和缩进，像个乌龟头，长0.7厘米，笔挂长3.9厘米。"(《我的圆珠笔》)

(5)作比较。就是通过比较说明事物和事理。例如《苏州园林》中，用苏州园林建筑的不对称与我国古代宫殿和近代的一般住房的对称进行比较，突出苏州园林的自然之美。

(6)打比方。利用两种事物之间的相似之处作比较以突出事物之间的性状特点，增强说明的形象性和生动性的说明方法叫打比方。"石拱桥的桥洞成弧形，就像虹。"形象准确地说明了石拱桥的外形特征，这句话就用了打比方的说明方法。

(7)画图表。有时，单用文字说明难以做到明确、具体，这时就可以用画图列表的方式加以补充，这种方法叫画图表。《统筹方法》一文就用了这种说明方法。

(8)引资料。资料的范围很广，可以是经典着作，名家名言，公式定律，典故谚语等。

我们怎样选择说明方法呢?这要根据自己的文章而定，因为运用一些说明方法的目的，是为了更正确地说明事物。

技巧四、语言描述准确

说明文的语言，和其它文体一样，都讲究用词准确，表述明白，这是写好各类文体章的基本要求。但是，说明文作为一种独立的文体，对文章的语言又有自己的特殊要求。说明文是以介绍知识为主的一种文体，无论是解说事物，还是阐明事理，都必须讲究科学性，按照客观事物的本来面目，老老实实地说清它们各自的特点和本质，既不允许虚构夸大，哗众取宠，也不允许艰深晦涩，佶屈聱牙。这样，说明文的语言就应该简洁明了，质朴无华，也就是语言要"平实".

不过，讲究平实，并不等于推崇呆板。正如叶圣陶先生在《文章例话》中所说："说明文不一定就是板起面孔来说话，说明文也未尝不可以带一点风趣。"为了将事物解说清楚，将事理剖析明白，说明文的语言可以形象些;为了适应不同场合的说明需要，增强文章的可读性，说明文的语言也可以活泼些。说明文的语言可以做到"平实"与"生动"的和谐统一。

语言的平实与生动，主要通过语言的运用来体现。不同色彩的词语，不同特点的句式，不同形式的修辞，都可以形成不同的语言风格。除此以外，表达方式的选择，说明方法的运用，乃至结构形式的安排，对文章风格的形成也有重要作用。

高考语文作文万能开头、结尾原则一：首尾相应结构严谨

例：

1、(开头)在城市尽头，没有繁华的街市，闪亮的霓虹;在城市的尽头，只有破旧的棚户区，有饱经生活风霜的生命;在城市的尽头、有他们这样一群人。

(结尾)太阳从地平线上升起，照亮了城市的尽头，照亮了他们的生活。

2、(开头)站在塞纳河畔，可以触摸巴黎时尚而又典雅的脉搏;身处第五大道、可以感受纽约华丽而又绚烂的气息;漫步银座街头，可以领略东京古老而又现代的文化;停留黄浦江边，可以体味上海兼容而又独特的精神……

(结尾)我在无限的思考中面对都市，触摸它的外壳，也渴望触摸它的灵魂。但愿有朝一日它的内质可以像外壳一样美丽动人，但愿有朝一日那些虚假与轻浮都会变得真实与坚固，但愿是"云销雨霁，彩彻区明"，但愿我们可以重新触摸到都市那由内而外的如花般缩放的美丽。

高考语文作文万能开头、结尾原则二：自然收束

例：

(开头)人生，其实就是一次过程，很多事，很多人，失败过，经历过才会懂，才会成熟。当失败来临的时候，不要伤悲，而应该看作是一次成长的机会，一次锻炼的机会。冲过去，会更美好、更灿烂的生活等着你，更会有一番成就感;如果退而不前，那只能迎来更多的失败，更多人生的遗憾。

(结尾)当我们快要走完人生路时，回首这一生，特别是那些困难和失败时，会觉得，或许正是由于这些，丰富了我们的人生，战胜、克服了它们，才让我们的人生更加完美无瑕。

高考语文作文万能开头、结尾原则三：画龙点睛

例：

(开头)怆然的灾难，古来有之。然而历史由古而今谁可曾见过这般振奋人心，撼天动地的团结?《史记》有云：民与民同心，则家安之，君与民同心，则国兴之。在今天，这是人民与人民，人民与国家，国家与世界的携手，何愁家不安，何愁国不兴?

(结尾)青山一道，我们同历风雨，团聚一处。而将五洲四海的人们集汇在-起的纽带，也许，是这样的期望：为天下立心，为生民立命，为往圣续绝学，为万世开太平!

高考语文作文万能开头、结尾原则四：使用诗歌

例：

流光容易把人抛，红了樱桃，绿了芭蕉。走在自己生命路上，有时很难看清自己是否走了弯路。不妨跳出来，调准焦距，才能照出最好生活。

高考语文作文万能开头、结尾原则五：妙用修辞

在作文中，不管是写人，记事，常常会有景物描写。那么写景应注意什么呢?下面是小编为你带来的小学生写景作文写作技巧归纳，欢迎阅读。

⒈写景要按方位顺序，由近及远，由远及近，由上而下，由下而上，由里到外，由外到里，或由中间到四周等等有次序地描写，要主次分明，详略得当。

⒉可以按景物的类别来写，如山、水、花、鸟;瀑、石、峰、洞;亭、台、楼阁等。要写出景物的光、色、味;既要写它的静态，也要写它的动态，还可以写出它的环境气氛。

⒊要仔细观察，抓住在不同季节里景物的不同特点进行描写，不要硬编乱造，凭自己的想象来写。

⒋写景中也可以具体地写些人和事，若让人、景、事三者交融一体来写，可以使作文更为感人。

⒌写景物时不要忘掉自己与景物之间的关系，要有意识地把自己的感情、感受写进去，这样使人读了会产生一种身临其境之感。叶圣陶老爷爷写的《记金华的双龙洞》不是具有这样的特点吗?

⒍适当地、正确地引用前人描写景物的诗词歌赋，也可以为作文增色。这就需要你平时多加阅读和积累，别等用时再去找。

【范文】

春 雨

四季的雨，各有千秋：春天的雨温婉动人，夏天的雨大气磅礴，秋天的雨夹杂着淡淡惆怅，冬天的雨带着一丝凄凉。相比之下，我更爱春雨，因为春雨“润物细无声”。

严冬一过，春雨便唤醒了世间的万物。它的亲吻让大地苏醒，土里的种子翻个身，打个滚，揉揉蒙眬的眼睛，伸个懒腰醒来了。瞧，小草探出脑袋，抖抖身子，精神劲儿十足。春雨给柳树送去一个微笑，柳枝吐出嫩芽作为回报。因为春雨的爱抚，湖水也不停地荡着波纹……

春雨是缠绵的、柔情的，好像是天空对大地的细语倾诉。它轻如牛毛，如烟如雾，亮泽了行人的头发，打湿了行人的衣衫。它如丝如雾的身影舞动于世间的每一个角落，像是春姑娘手中的绣花针，一针一线地绣出了美丽的春天。

雨过天晴，鸟儿扇动翅膀，在柳枝上放开歌喉，欢快地唱起春天的赞歌。迎春花也开心地露出灿烂的笑容。这一切都是春雨的功劳呢!

“春雨贵如油”，早春的雨吹响了劳动的号角!农民伯伯脸上露出了欣慰的笑容，他们开始了忙碌的一年，田地里的拖拉机唱起了欢快的歌。

一场春雨送走了寒冬，给孩子们带来了温暖。读书声飘荡在教室的每个角落，像是在表达对春雨的感谢!

一场春雨，让我闻到了泥土特有的芳香，我知道这是春天的味道!这不禁又让我想起“好雨知时节，当春乃发生”这句诗了。

1．词语选择的重要性

在The Right Word at the Right Time的“序言”中，编者对词语选用的重要性作了一个很好的比喻：“Using the right word at the right time is rather like wearing appropriate clothing for the occasion：

it is a courtesy to others，and a favor to yourself-a matter of presenting yourself well in the eyes of the world."

显然，说话或写文章时用词适当比穿着适当难度大得多，因而也具有更大的重要性。在我国，古人写文章时常为一个词语的选用具思苦想，因而有“语不惊人死不休”的说法。

成语“一字值千金”也说明了选择词语的极端重要性。有时“一字之差”造成令人遗憾的败笔，或招致成千上万的经济损失。这些反面的教训也告诉我们必须重视词语选用的问题。

2．词语选择的可能性

实际上，我们每个人的脑子里都有了一个或大或小的词库，只要我们肯去发掘，往往可以得到更好的表达方式。这是我们做好词语选用的主观条件。

从客观条件广看，我们有各种类型的词典和参考书，只要我们平时多翻译、多阅读，写作时勤查考，就会在词语选用上不断进步。当然，一部好词典也不会毫无缺点，更难以面面俱到，因此在这里我们应牢牢记住著名英国作家、评论家和辞书编纂家Johson的话：

文案，原指放书的桌子，后来指在桌子上写字的人。现在指的是公司或企业中从事文字工作的职位，就是以文字来表现已经制定的创意策略。小编收集了描写文案的写作技巧，欢迎阅读。

一、大声朗读

大声阅读你的文章，这是检查文章语法错误和一些笨拙语句的最好办法。同时，大声的阅读更容易让你将文章变得朗上口，如果一个销售文案看上去像一个难读的长字，或许你应该重新组织适当的语言。

记住：一篇好的文案看上去应该是一次真正的对话。

二、标题与子标题标题应该包括下面的一个或者几个重要内容：

明确的目标听众明确一个具体的问题表达主要的产品/服务卖点在读者的脑中预设一个问题观察标题的长度超过8-12个单词的标题将会显得过于冗长，尤其对于需要纸质出版的文案更是如此。如果确实无法表达完整的意思，可以考虑使用小标题进行补充，参考杂志封面标题的处理方式。

针对网络发布的文案写作，比如博客文章和Landing Page等，标题对搜索引擎优化也非常重要，如果你希望从搜索引擎获得流量，那么标题中包含主要的关键词，合理的使用标签是非常必要的，对于针对SEO的写作技巧可以参考：如何创建搜索引擎友好的内容。

如果你针对的是网络广告，或者社会化媒体来获得流量的话，我认为关键词就显得不那么重要了，你更多的应该是考虑标题的趣味性和磁性，利用人们的好奇心，吸引更多读者的注意，从而达到提高点击率的目的。

另外，如果在标题中包含了非常重要的信息，确认你在文 章主体中再次重复，通常需要在文首，文中，文末各出现一次，当然如果文案较长，则可以多次重复，避免读者在阅读中跳过该重要信息。不过在文章的第一句话 中，可以适当对信息内容进行一下变形，如果和标题一模一样则容易产生不好的阅读体验。

你的子标题是否适用?

子标题的主要作用是标题的可读性延伸，尤其对于长文案来说，在文章内部使用子标题可以起到路标的作用，可以让文章的可读性大大增强。

三、文案主体

你的文案是否清晰的传递了所提供的产品/服务的好处?

这是判断一个文案质量好坏最重要的标准。不要把焦点简单的放在主要特色的描述上面，更多的传递这些特色能提供什么好处给你的潜在买家。

将主要的好处/卖点靠前放置

产品或服务的核心好处应该在文案主要内容的第一或者第二个段落中放置。

段落的长度

确保你的主体内容段落有适当的长度，对于大多数文案来说，任何超过4-5行的段落都显得过于冗长了。将第一个段落作为可读性吊钩尤其重要，尽量保持在2到3行是比较适合的。

注意局部细节

提防那些会让你的文案显得单调的习惯。多使用连词来连接语句，多使用“您”，“您的…”，“you”，“yours”等人称来定位，尽量让你的文案看上去像一次真正的会话。

你的文案中是否使用了“free”，“new”，“save”，“no-risk”，“guaranteed”，“sample”，“fast”等词汇以及它们的变体，并且随时在脑海中铭记产品的品牌价值?

你是否喜欢在广告文案中提请人们注意文案本身?一个好的文案应该是简单明了的，你应该避免奇怪的内容架构，俏皮话或者双关语，以及极少使用的标点符号等等。避免让这些东西分散读者的注意力，你不需要卖弄你的文采，需要做的只是传递清晰的产品好处给你的潜在买家。

你的文案是否包括建立信任的内容?

人性的角度，引用真实的人/客户，推荐和表扬，直接引用，客户故事等等都是建立信任的好办法。我们在有关说服力的写作技巧中也提到了许多如何建立信任的技巧，在文案写作中也是可以借鉴的。

避免欺骗诱惑

如果你提供的是一些免费的东西，保证读者能够真正的得到免费。如果你使用你无法兑现的承诺来诱惑他们，这将最终摧毁他们对你的信任。

坦率和公正让文案维持生命力

你不能为那些你自己都不相信的产品编写文案，或者说推荐那些你自己都不愿意购买的产品给你的读者。永远不要尝试去误导读者，歪曲事实，坦率和公正的发表你的真实想法。

诚实的对待所有问题

如果你提供一些特别优惠给客户，不要忘记诚实的告诉他们特别优惠的原因和理由，这将帮助你销售更多的产品，例如：

有理由的特别优惠更能让提高客户对你的信任度和认同感。

四、口吻和腔调

1、正如我们前面提到过的那样，一篇优秀的文案应该是一次真正的会话。确保在文案中你没有使用过任何不会在日常会谈中使用的口吻。与产品相关的主要术语可能是个例外，但即使如此，你还是需要向读者清晰的解释，除非你是1对1的面对相关行业的专业读者。

2、考虑到正式会谈的礼仪，使用合适的礼貌用语。

3、口吻和强调应该能够反映出品牌价值。

4、第一人称还是第三人称?这依赖于你的文案与谁有关，一旦你做出了选择，确保你在整个文案中都保持使用一致的人称。

五、Call to action

1、每次呼吁行动都应该包含清晰的指令，所有的文案，不管是Landing Page还是Direct Mail甚至促销传单的写作，都应该在脑中铭记并提出一个精确的目标(call us now，buy this now，visit thisstore…)。你需要清楚和直接的告诉读者你需要他们做什么。

2、为每次呼吁行动制造紧迫感。在Call to Action中使用now，right now，hurry等词语以及添加时间限制信息等手段来制造紧迫感。

3、文案结尾使用call to action非常重要，你应该在这里请求他们做点什么，不要让他们在读完你的文案后感觉到无所适从。

六、排版和布局

可读性

1、在适当的位置插入图片可以提升文案的可读性，尤其对于较长的文案。但与博客文章插图不同的是，你不需要那些可能分散读者注意力的图片，人们对文字的理解大致相同，但对于图片，人们会有更多的想象空间。你应该围绕你的核心产品及卖点进行图片的搭配。2、不要使用过多的字体颜色搭配。建议不全文不超过三种颜色，统一字体，字体大小可以考虑，载体大小也尽量不超过三种。3、适当的使用缩进功能，我非常喜欢Jason的文章排版方式，他的文章可读性很好，非常值得参考。参考内容：网页可读性设计- 10个web设计可读性评估工具

可用性

你需要考虑下面的可用性问题

1、一些重要的信息总能被您的用户看到吗?2、有一个直观的导航和行动作用选项吗?3、用户是否以符合逻辑的方式定向到他们该去的地方?4、网页的读取速度是足够迅速，还是不断的考验你用户的耐心?参考内容：1、网站可用性设计- 6个最普遍的可用性设计错误2、Landing Page的5个可用性设计小经验3、10个免费的web分析及可用性工具

七、标点和语法

注意单复数动词的使用

我曾经在Adwords的广告活动上做过测试，正确的使用is，are，was，were动词非常重要，看似不大的问题，但它们对广告的点击率却有非常大的影响。

另外，在使用代词比如：就公司来说也应该算是法定意义上的“人们”，感觉上一个公司应该是一个群体，因此我们在指代的时候，使用they就要比使用it要自然得多。

注意-ly副词，过度的形容词以及-ing分词

尽量使用平坦和简单化的语言，尽量在句子中使用描述性的动词和具体的名词，过多的使用副词，形容词，分词会影响文案整体的可读性。

尽量积极和直接，就像与朋友在喝啤酒时一样的交谈。

八、编辑和校对

1、在草案完成之前进行校对是在浪费你的时间。

2、当你完成你的最终草案后，休息一段时间后再来进行校对，时间越长越有效。这会帮助你使用新鲜的眼光来审视整个文稿，让你更容易发现更小的错误。

3、当你开始进行校对的时候，more eyes = better

4、不要过度依赖类似whitesmoke，stylewriter这样的校对软件，它们永远无法代替人工校对，虽然它们可以适当提高你的工作效率。

(一)素质训练，也叫基础训练

任何一种技能技巧的形成，并使之达到熟练程度，都必须经过干锤百炼，所谓熟能生巧、巧能生华就是这个意思。竞走、赛跑运动员的速度是练出来的，游泳、自行车运动员的速度也是练出来的。快速作文也一样，要提高写作成文速度，主要靠练。快速作文没有秘诀，没有魔图，只要通过严格训练，就能出成果，问题是要有科学的训练方法和步骤。

快速作文训练的中心是“快”，这种训练是在学生具有一定的写作基础和掌握了一定的写作技巧的基础上求“快”、求“好”的训练，如果写作素质太差，就没法进行快速训练。达到下列目的：

1、提高写作兴趣，培养写作情感

心理学告诉我们，兴趣是获得知识、形成技能技巧、开发智力的动力。因此，任何形式的教学都必须严格遵循兴趣性原则。只有当学生对写作文产生了浓厚的兴趣时，快速作司文训练才会有成效。心理学同时告诉我们，兴趣与当前的需要有关，因此提高学生写作兴趣的办法虽然是多种多样的，但是其中重要的一条便是向学生进行快速写作目的教育，如果学生认识了快速作文的必要性，他就会对作文产生浓厚的兴习趣。另外，出作文题要紧跟形势，与时代同步，要切合学生的生活实际，命题要尽量新，能激发学生的写作兴趣，使学学生有话可写。

2.积累写作材料

这一点要贯穿到整个快速作文训练的始终，但在基础训练阶段要重点抓。“巧妇难为无米之炊”，没有写作材料，再好的写作高手也难以完篇。因此，一定要求学生分专题记住;一些典型材料，譬如有关爱国主义，党的领导，尊重知识，改革开放，廉政建设，学雷锋等等，每个方面都要记住一两个典型材料。材料的积累，教师只能做指导，要让学生自己去找，不要全班统一，全班统一了，写作的论据就会雷同。所积累的材料要注意三点：一要典型，二要准确，三要记牢。要强调用脑记，要背，不能光靠笔记本。材料越充足，写作速度就越快。

3.丰富写作语言

如果学生语言贫乏，写作时搜索枯肠也找不到一句恰当的话来表达自己的意思，往往写了涂，涂了又写，就无法提高写作速度。如果词汇不丰富，写到中途某个字不会写或者没有一个恰当的词来表达自己的意思，这样写作就会“卡壳”，当然也就达不到快速作文的目的。因此，写作语言的训练和词汇的积累是十分重要的。丰富写作语言的方法之一是，背书和加强课外阅读，书读得越多，背得越熟，作文就会越通顺，语言就会有文采，不会老说口水话。再就是指导学生学习群众生动活泼的语言，克服学生腔。另外，要指导学生积累词汇，词汇丰富，写起作文来就能得心应手，速度也就快了。

4.训练书写能力

书写能力的高低直接影响写作速度。因此进行快速作文教学，必须强化书写能力训练。作文不是书法竞赛，并不要求铁画银钩，但也不能龙飞凤舞，我们要求学生养成良好的书写习惯，把字写得清楚、规范、工整。具体做法主要是临摩字帖，每个学生应备有两本字帖，一本正楷，一本行书，先练正楷，后学行书，逐日临摩，坚持不懈，定能收到良好的效果。总之，通过素质训练，要使学生想写作文，爱写作文，并且有东西可写，话写得通顺。

(二)思维训练

快速作文的关键是快速思维训练。思维是人脑对客观事物本质特征和规律性的认识。快速思维则要求学生在分析、综合，比较、抽象、概括和具体化的整个思维过程中，思维活动应具有广泛性、独立性、敏捷性和创造性。一见到作文题能立即做出反应，要求审题、立意、谋篇、布局的全过程不超过五分钟。抓好快速作文思维训练主要从三个方面入手：

1、树立正确的世界观

思维是人脑对客观事物的概括的、间接的反映。要正确反映客观世界，首先必须具有正确的世界观。因此，要和政治课相配合，组织学生学习马列主义、毛泽东思想，掌握辩证唯物主义和历史唯物主义的基本原理，要了解当前党的各项方针政策。正确的政治观点、思维观点是快速思维的定向器和指示灯。因此，必须教育学生关心国家大事，树立远大理想，加强政治修养，提高政治觉悟。

2.加强抽象思维训练

议论文的构思过程，实际上就是抽象思维的过程，因此，必须教给学生分析、概括、综合、判断等基本逻辑方法和纵向思维、逆向思维、反向思维、辐射思维等思维方法。训练抽象思维的方法是多种多样的，我认为最有效的方法是组织学生进行讨论和辩论。课堂讨论应允许学生和老师唱“对台戏”，要鼓励学生在课外争论问题，学生争得面红耳赤的时侯，也就是思维最活跃、最敏捷的时候。

3.进行形象思维训练

写记叙文离不开想象、联想、幻想等形象思维活动。要求学生在很短的时间内写好一篇记叙文，没有扎实的形象思维训练是不行的。训练形象思维的方法之一是有目的地指导学生观察事物的基本形象，牢记心头，并组织学生参观、访问。要重视写回忆录，回忆录的写作过程实际就是训练形象思维的过程。

总之，通过这一步训练，要达到开拓学生思维的目的，使学生变得思维敏捷，对作文题反应迅速，想象力丰富，要改变学生中普遍存在的思维迟钝、思想涣散的不良习惯。

(三)写作速度训练

第一步素质训练是基础，第二步思维训练是关键，这第三步的速度训练则是目的。整个快速作文训练的最终目的就是要求学生能够快速写作。如果第一、二步训练都抓得扎实，速度训练就会见效。基本做法是严格要求，限时作文。为了提高速度，每次作文都只能安排一个课时，一定要严格要求，当堂完卷。要求学生做到快速审题，快速立意，快速布局谋篇，快速写作，快速修改。总之，一切都要立足于一个“快"字。40分钟的时间分配大致是这样的：审题、立意(确定中心思想)和谋篇布局(编写作提纲)不超过5分钟，写作30分钟，修改5分钟。通过训练，这个要求一般学生都能做到。另外，在班内开展快速作文竞赛也是个提高写作速度的好办法，一搞竞赛，学生的兴趣就来了。刚开始进行速度训练时，有些学生是跟不上的，40分钟怎么也写不完。怎么办呢?二是多加鼓励，切忌指责;二是暂时迁就，但绝不放松要求。时间一到，一律收卷，没写完也要收卷。这样，学生下次写作文就有一种紧迫感和时间观念。有些学生，一讲快速作文，字就乱涂乱画。碰到这样的学生怎么办呢?不能操之过急，分两步走，先要求写完800字，再要求字迹清楚。作文不是书法竞赛，不要求铁画银钩，只要字体工整，文字规范就行。个别字迹潦草的学生，要加强教育和书写指导。

(四)技巧训练

第三步训练要求解决写作速度问题，这一步训练便是"快”中求巧，同时，也是对速度训练成果的巩固和提高。基本方法是专题指导，讲练结合。如果前三步抓得扎实，这一步训练往往水到渠成。通过这一阶段的训练，不但要使学生熟练地掌握各种文体的写法和技巧，更重要的是要掌握快速写作的技巧。比如快速审题、快速立意、快速谋篇布局、快速写作、快速修改等技巧，都要分专题进行归纳，总结和指导，还要能快速应付写作中随时出现的“卡壳”现象，诸如走题、空洞、松散、结构混乱、词不达意、字不会写等毛病的纠正和意外情况的应付办法。至于这些快速写作的具体技巧和方法，我在下面将作专门介绍，在这里就不一一赘述。

(五)综合训练

通过以上四步训练，学生基本掌握了快速写作的方式与技巧，具备了快速写作的基础。为了全面提高快速作文的能力，必须进行综合训练。

看图写话的训练目的是要求小朋友们能有顺序地观察图画、理解图画的意思并能表达图意，写成一段通顺的话。小编收集了小学生画图作文的写作技巧，欢迎阅读。

仔细推敲写话

要求找出要素

看图写话，通常都会配有这样一段文字。“图上画的是什么时候，在什么地方?有哪些人在干什么?想一想他们会说什么?请用几句话把图上的意思连起来写一写。”这段文字很重要，小朋友千万不可一看而过，要细细推敲，这段文字就是对写话的要求，也提示我们如何写话。

写话要求通常提示我们观察图画要关注时间、地点、人物、事情，还要发挥想象他们会说什么。因此在写话的时候你就要写上这幅图所告诉你的时间、地点、人物、事情，还要发挥想象他们会说什么。只有这些要素都具备了，才是合格的写话。

对比前后图画的

不同之处

理清图意需要小朋友们仔细观察、认真思考。例如给你两幅图，第一幅图呈现了一条小鱼在鱼缸里、一个猫站在鱼缸边上正朝着鱼缸看，第二幅图呈现了一个鱼缸和一只舔着嘴巴笑眯眯的猫。你在观察时，就要对比两幅图的不一样，细心的你会发现第二幅图中鱼缸里的鱼不见了，而猫正在舔着嘴巴。经过你的认真思考，你会想到鱼被猫吃了。图中省去了猫吃鱼的过程，就需要小朋友们仔细观察、认真思考，理清图的意思。

请看这篇佳作：“有一只小花猫看到一个鱼缸里面有一条金鱼，她想来想去：怎么能吃到这条金鱼呢?

小花猫伸出猫爪在鱼缸里抓鱼，小金鱼游得非常快，就像一道红色的闪电。小花猫怎么也抓不到它，急得满头大汗。小花猫抓抓脑袋想出了一个办法。她对小金鱼说：“你游泳的技术真棒，可是你会跳吗?”小鱼得意地说：“我当然会跳啦!”“那你跳几下给我看看，我就不吃你了。”小花猫刚说完，小金鱼就跳了起来，水花溅了一地。小花猫看准时机在空中抓住了小鱼塞进了嘴里。

小花猫闭上眼睛，舔着嘴巴，得意洋洋地走开了。”

从图中场面及人物

加以推测

看图写话要求中常常会问图上是什么时间，小朋友在观察图画时就要从图中现有的一些场面来推测。例如呈现一幅图，公园里人们在锻炼身体，有的在跑步，有的在打太极拳，还有的在打羽毛球。从哪里能看出时间呢?小朋友就要仔细观察人们身上穿了什么，如果人们都穿了短袖、还有女士穿裙子，就可以推测是夏天。如果人们穿着厚厚的衣服，还有人戴手套、戴帽子，就可以推测是冬天。

再看场地是在公园，人们都在锻炼身体，显然人们是在公园里晨练，从而知道图上画的是早晨。因此理清图意，仔细观察、认真思考以及合理推测很重要。

按顺序观察

才能表达有序

看图写话训练的一个重点就是按顺序观察，只有按顺序观察了才能使你的表达有序，而不是杂乱无章。

按顺序观察常常出现在场面描写中，例如出示一幅图是小朋友们三两成群地在雪地里玩耍，有的打雪仗，有的堆雪人，有的滚雪球。小朋友在观察的时候可以按照从前到后、从后到前、从左到右或者从右到左的顺序观察，并按照这样的顺序进行描写，这样你的表达就显得条理清晰。

按顺序观察是前提，能详略得当地描写可以使你的作文更显张力。这就要求我们在观察的时候还要有所侧重。你可以重点观察小朋友是如何堆雪人的，雪人的眼睛、鼻子、嘴巴、手都是什么做成的。也可以重点观察小朋友是如何打雪仗的，他们的动作和表情怎样。重点观察后再写出来，那你的写话就更出彩了。

发挥合理想象

丰富语言

很多同学在写话的时候既表达了图意，也能够有条理地描写，但是语言很简单，仅仅是就图说图，缺乏合理的想象。其实想象可以使你的写话充满灵气和活力。

例如一幅图上呈现四个小朋友，他们有的扛着小树苗、有的提着水壶、有的拿着铁锹，很显然小朋友们是准备植树了。在小朋友的头顶上还有两只小鸟在飞。如果在写话的时候只是写你观察到的两只小鸟在小朋友的头顶上飞翔，就显得简单无趣。这时你就要展开合理的想象：小鸟可能在给小朋友们唱歌，小鸟可能在说：“太好了，我们又有新家啦!”这样的想象就比写小鸟在飞要生动有趣的多。

想象可以给你的作文添彩，但如果不根据图画进行合理想象，就会使你的作文变成“胡编乱造”。如果你想象图中的小鸟要去南方过冬、图中的小鸟正在觅食，就与四个小朋友去植树没有关联，背离了图意。

以上就是我们在写话中要掌握的几个技巧，每一环节都把握好了，才能写出优秀的看图作文。

一、展开联想法

【特点】

我们看到一棵植物，往往联想到其它事物，这些事物往往与这棵植物有共同之处。例如我们看到棉桃，联想到洁白的雪花，这是因为雪花和棉花的颜色相同;我们看到大西瓜，联想到篮球，这是因为西瓜和篮球的形状相似;我们看到冰在雪地中郁郁葱葱的松树，想起那些在敌人面前不怕严刑拷打，决不屈膝的英雄，那是松树与英雄的品质上有相似之处。采用联想的方法描写植物，要注意抓住植物的主要特点，展开丰富的想象。要提高自己的联想能力，首先要认真读书，了解生活，使自己的头脑储备丰富的知识。其次是勤思勤想，经常训练，使自己有丰富的想象能力。

二、突出重点法

【特点】

植物总是由根、茎、枝、叶、花、果组成。我们在描写植物的时候，可以对植物的根、茎、枝、叶、花、果的各个部分进行描述，也可以只对植物的某一部分进行描述。采用重点突出法描写植物时，首先要找出这棵植物与众不同的地方。其次要对最能体现这棵植物特点的部分从颜色、形状、气味等多方面进行具体描写。此外还可以恰当地运用拟人、比喻等方法。

三、对照比较法

【特点】

俗话说：“不见高山，不知平地。”事物的特点往往在比较中得到显现。我们描写植物时，往往通过对照比较的方法来突出植物的特点。对照比较的方法有两种。一种是把这种植物与另一种植物进行比较;一种是把植物本身两种截然不同的特点放在一起比较。采用对照比较法要注意抓住所要描写的植物最显著的特点与其他植物作比较。这样才能给读者以深刻的印象和启示。采用对照比较法还要注意表达作者自己的思想感情和倾向性。这样才能使文章感人。抓住同一植物不同部位进行比较时，要注意找出矛盾点，这样才能引起读者的注意。

四、移步换形法

【特点】

采用移步换形的方法描写建筑物，可以不断地变换立足点和观察点，对建筑物进行多方面的观察描写。同一个建筑物，从不同的角度去看，得到的印象是不一样的。因此采用移步换形法描写建筑物首先要把观察点和立足点交代清楚，使读者明白你所描述的建筑物形象是从哪一个角度看到的。否则，容易把读者搞糊涂了。其次，采用移步换形法描写建筑物时，一定要抓住建筑物的最主要的特征来写。如果采用面面俱到的方法来描写，文章容易变成一本流水账。

五、说明介绍法

【特点】

采用说明介绍法描写建筑物时，首先要注意紧扣文章确定的中心进行必要的说明介绍，切忌不着边际的东拉西扯。在说明介绍的过程中要简明扼要，切忌拖泥带水。采用说明介绍法描写建筑物时，还要注意整体的连贯性，也就是说在说明介绍完毕以后，文章要返回到描写建筑物上来，并与前文衔接。文章从描写建筑物转到介绍说明，或从介绍说明回到描写建筑物要有过渡词或过渡句。

六、环境衬托法

【特点】

周围都是绿色，中间的一点红色就特别鲜艳夺目，所以说“万绿丛中一点红”。对建筑物周围的景色进行适当描写，建筑物就显得突出。描写建筑物周围景色的目的是为了突出建筑物，因此描写景色时要能衬托建筑物的特点，切忌离开建筑物而大写特写景色。造成喧宾夺主。在描写建筑物周围的景色时，要把观察点和立足点交代清楚，便于读者了解建筑物的位置。

七、彩笔描绘法

【特点】

植物总是由根、茎、叶、花、果组成的。运用彩笔描绘法时，要把根、茎、叶、花、果各个部位的最主要特点写出来，要写出它们的形状，写出它们的颜色。采用这种方法描写植物，要仔细观察。要分辨出植物各个部位的颜色，同样是红色，要分出是火红的，还是粉红的;同样是黄色，要分出是桔黄的，还是金黄的;同样是绿色，要分出是碧绿的，还是嫩绿的……要仔细区分各个部位的形状特点，同样是花，花骨朵与盛开的花就不一样。观察得仔细，描写得具体，读者就好像看到一张植物的彩色照片。采用这种方法描写植物，还要运用恰当的比喻，要写出自己的情感。

八、远近结合法

【特点】

同一棵植物，远看和近看是不一样的。这同照相一样，放在照相机的前面和远离照相机，摄下来的照片是大小不相同的。采用远近结合法描写植物，可以从不同的角度反映出植物的形状和颜色的特点，给读者以完美的印象。采用这种方法描写植物要把观察点交代清楚，也就是要说清楚是远看的还是近看的。其次要注意叙述的顺序，或由远及近，或由近及远，这样文章才能条理分明。

九、时序变换法

【特点】

植物各个部位的形态和颜色是随着季节的变化而变化。如果我们把植物在不同季节的特点写出来，同时把前后有关的情况交代清楚，就等于在不同的时间给植物拍了彩色照片。看了这一组彩色照片，读者对它就有了一个较为全面的了解。采用时序变换法描写植物，首先要注意在平时积累资料。要有计划地在不同季节对同一植物进行仔细观察，并记下观察日记，这样，写作时才能对积累的材料进行取舍，写出一篇好文章。其次要注意观察的连续性。

十、生长变化法

【特点】

植物总是要生长的，一般要经过发芽、生枝、长叶、开花、结果等阶段。如果把植物生长的不同阶段的形状、颜色的特点和生长的情况与下来，就好像给这棵植物拍了一部小电影。读者可以在很短的时间内，通过阅读，了解植物生长的全过程。采用生长变化法描写植物，首先要注意把植物生长过程中最突出的变化写下来;其次要交代植物发生变化的原因、前后情况和过程;此外要注意按时间的先后顺序有条不紊地写下来。

写作文的时候，我们一定要掌握好技巧以及方法，这样才能够使文章纲吉的有活力。下面是小编为大家搜集整理出来的有关于记叙文写作照应技巧，希望可以帮助到大家！

首尾式照应

首尾式照应，就是在文章开头出现的事物或语句，在文章结尾又再次出现，从而构成首尾呼应的关系，使全文形成一个首尾圆合、严密无懈的整体。首尾式照应的作用，主要表现在两个方面，一是在内容上，它可以强调某种思想感情，强化主题意义，加深读者印象，提高表达效果。二是在结构上，它可以增强文章的完整性和回环美。

首尾式照应在记叙文中的运用，常见的有两种情况。

一是运用倒叙方法的记叙文，必然是首尾照应，这种情况最多，也最典型。例如《记一辆纺车》，它运用了倒叙的方法，首尾照应很严密。请看首尾两段的有关内容：

首段：“我曾经使用过一辆纺车，离开延安那年，把它跟一些书籍一起留在蓝家坪了，后来常常想起它。想起它，就像想起旅伴，想起战友，心里充满着深切的怀念。”

尾段：“就因为这些，我常常想起那辆纺车。想起它就像想起旅伴和战友，心里充满着深切的怀念。围绕着这种怀念，也想起延安的种种生活。……”

这两段文字，在内容上、感情上、修辞上、时间上、地点上、表达方式上等方面，几乎都是相同的，前者放在开头，领起全篇，造成悬念，揭示主旨，激发读者阅读的兴趣。后者放在结尾，总结全文，强调中心，回扣文首。这样，既强调了作者与纺车的密切关系，又深化了纺车的不平凡意义，使文章形成了一个很严密的整体。

二是运用顺叙方法的记叙文，也有首尾照应的，但没有运用倒叙方法记叙文的照应那么周密，那么严整，运用的频率也不高，难度却较大，但如果运用得好，会产生别出心裁的效果，例如莫怀戚的《散步》，是一篇用顺叙方法写成的记叙文，其中就运用了这种照应的方法。

先看开头：“我们在田野散步：我，我的母亲，我的妻子和儿子。”

再看结尾：“这样，我们在阳光下，向着那菜花、桑树和鱼塘走去，到了一处，我蹲下来，背起了母亲，妻子也蹲下来，背起了儿子。……”

这两段文字的照应，主要体现在两个方面：一是情节的照应，即“散步”;二是人物的照应，即“我”母亲、妻子、儿子等祖孙三代四个人。而且，照应的顺序很有讲究，开头是“散步”总概，结尾是具体的“散步”;开头由“我”到“母亲”到“妻子”到“儿子”，结尾依然是这样的安排顺序。这样照应，既有序，又有物，既合理，又严密。

首尾式照应是使文章完整的最主要方法之一，运用时，有两点值得注意：一是照应的语句要有所变化，不能简单重复，否则显得呆板;二是开头和结尾的文字，要有明显的适应性，开头只能作开头，结尾只能做结尾，不能互换而用。

总结式照应

总结式照应，就是在文章有关段落的前面或后面，对上面或下面的内容进行总结或领起，这种总结总领式的语句或段落，至少出现两次，而且句式或段落的内容和形式基本相同，从而形成前后照应的关系，使文章浑然一体。

总结式照应既在内容上归束上文，领起下文，又在结构上勾连前后，具有明显的阶段性，有的从内容上，逐层引向深入，有的从感情上，依次推向高潮。它在内容上以总结总领为主，在结构上以照应为主。例如《白杨礼赞》这篇文章，全文共9个自然节，总结式照应主要体现在第4、第6两节。第4节：“那就是白杨树，西北极普通的一种树，然而实在是不平凡的一种树。”第6节：“这就是白杨树，西北极普通的一种树，然而决不是平凡的树。”这两段文字，前者总结是第3节内容，后者总结第5节内容，它们都是一名话，都是独立成段，二者不仅内容相同，都是说白杨树的不平凡，都是说白杨树的评赞，而且句式也都是相同的，都是二重转折复句，都是判断句加否定句，实际上，只有两个词之差，其余所用的文字也都是相同的。这样总结，就构成了明显的照应关系，使文章前后相联，彼此关照，避免了松散和拖沓，强调了白杨树的不平凡意义，总结很有深度和力度。

总结式照应的另一种形式，就是体现文章主题思想的语句在文中多次出现，如果出现在开头，则起领起作用，如果出现在中间或结尾，则起总结作用。这种照应阶段性不明显，但更自由灵活。《钓胜于鱼》这篇以记叙文为主的哲理散文，就采用了这种照应的方法。体现文章主题的语句是“我是为钓，不是为鱼”，这个句子在文中完整地出现有两次，一次是在第6节，二次是在第 18节，除此而外还有与之相近的句子，如第10节：“能够欣赏钓，而不计较鱼”;如第17节：“不是为鱼的钓者”等。这些语句，有的用于段落的开头，有的用于段落的结尾，概括领起，总结归纳，前照后应，十分和谐紧凑。

总结式照应有明显的阶段性，阶段的体现有两种形式，一是并列式，像《白杨礼赞》;二是递进式，如《钓胜于鱼》。运用时，要注意文章的发展顺序，是并列式还是递进式。如果是前者，总结的语句可以相同：如果是后者，总结的语句就要稍有变化，要符合递进的内容特点，还有，总结的语句宜简不宜详，以概括为主，表达上一般是议论或抒情。

伏笔式照应

伏笔式照应，就是在文章的前面为后面设下埋伏的内容。这种照应，有的体现在事物上，有的体现在线索上，有的体现在情节上，用得比较多的是后者。伏笔式照应讲究的是“伏”，“伏”的内容设计要服从全文的主要情节，不能旁逸。同时，后文要有对前文“伏”的内容的说明，使“伏”的内容有个圆满的交代，从而形式前伏后应的密切关系，使文章结构严谨。

伏笔式照应既有单一性的，又有多样性的，前者按一条线索设置伏笔，单线发展，这种照应，比较简单，读者容易掌握.后者多方面地设置伏笔，也多方面交代结局，这种照应有一定的难度 ，读者不易把握，但用得好，可以增加文章的结构美。例如，《挺进报》就运用了这种多样性的伏笔照应。

文章开头提到陈然：“决心学写仿宋字”，狱中党组织又指示陈然“心须坚持写仿宋字”，这两处都是伏笔，后来，特务们核对许晓轩的笔迹，得出“笔迹相同”的结论，这是对前面两处伏笔的交代，照应十分严密。如果前面没有那两处伏笔，这个结论就很难作出，如果硬写上这个结论，就显得突兀了，这是第一组伏笔式照应。