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写作需要什么样的基础(精品20篇)

学写作文,没有诀窍,没有捷径,唯有多读多写。读书是吸收,是积累;作文,则是运用。下面就是小编给大家带来的写作需要什么样的基础,希望能助你一臂之力!

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公共基础知识写作模板

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导语:在考公共基础知识时需要进行写作,那么应该如何写作呢?下面是小编分享给大家的范文,希望对大家有帮助。

一、请仔细阅读下面的材料,并根据作答要求作文;

曾有人做过实验,将一只最凶猛的鲨鱼和一群热带鱼放在同一个池子,然后用强化玻璃隔开。最初,鲨鱼每天不断冲撞那块看不到的玻璃,奈何这只是徒劳,它始终不能过到对面去,而实验人员每天都有放一些鲫鱼在池子里,所以鲨鱼也没缺少猎物,只是它仍想到对面去,每天仍是不断地冲撞那块玻璃,它试了每个角落,每次都是用尽全力,但每次也总是弄得伤痕累累,有好几次都浑身破裂出血,持续了好一些日子,每当玻璃一出现裂痕,实验人员马上加上一块更厚的玻璃。

后来,鲨鱼不再冲撞那块玻璃了,对那些斑斓的热带鱼也不再在意,好像他们只是墙上会动的壁画,它开始等着每天固定会出现的鲫鱼,然后用它敏捷的本能进行狩猎,好像回到海中不可一世的凶狠霸气,但这一切只不过是假像罢了。

实验到了最后的阶段,实验人员将玻璃取走,但鲨鱼却没有反应,每天仍是在固定的区域游着,它不但对那些热带鱼视若无睹,甚至于当那些鲫鱼逃到那边去,他就立刻放弃追逐,说什么也不愿再过去。

实验结束了,实验人员讥笑它是海里最懦弱的鱼,可是失恋过的人都知道为什么,它怕痛。

要求:(1)自选角度,自拟题目

(2)联系实际

(3)写一篇不少于800字的议论文

(4)请在主观题答题卡上作答

二、【写作参考答案】

【解析】这属于寓言故事的出题方式,主要是围绕鲨鱼,面对强化玻璃在历经失败过后,产生相对安逸的思维,等到危机困难真正解除,却不能迎接之前的目标,想告诉我们,面对失败挫折,应该积极面对,不能退而求其次,因此,这篇文章立意是应对挫折,获得辉煌。

结合日常生活中的生活经验,可以从良好心态、激发个人潜能、调整人生目标方面进行论述。

历经挫折 迎接辉煌

贝多芬曾说过:“苦难是人生的老师,通过苦难,走向欢乐。”人的一生不能没有老师,就如同不能没有挫折一样。遭遇挫折,是人生常态,就像四季轮回、秋去冬来一样,是事物发展的客观规律,非人力所能避免。挫折是一个火药桶,点燃它会给人们带来苦难,带来不幸,带来失利;同时坐车又是一把金钥匙,拿着它会打开成功的大门,踏上人生的巅峰,通往幸福的天堂。因此,正确面对挫折,才能迎来新的篇章。

笑对挫折,能够培育良好心态,享受生活。人生之路不是一马平川,有坦途就有坎坷,有甜蜜就有苦涩。人生之路,从来都与挫折相伴而行。然而,挫折对于强者来说是一块块垫脚石,是通向成功的一级级阶梯;对于弱者则是一道道绊脚石,会把弱者跌得鼻青脸肿。

挫折,有时候也会像一座沙漠,试图使人迷失方向。然自信者手中始终会握着一枚“指南针”,他永远不会迷失方向,勇往直前地向着目标进发;而失意者整天却像一个无头苍蝇,撞到哪儿算哪儿,一辈子也走不出“沙漠”。要想享受生活,就要正确对待挫折,时时怀着得意淡然、失意坦然的乐观态度,笑对自己的挫折和苦难,去做,去努力,去争取!

笑对挫折,能够激发个人潜能,助力成长。挫折是积累经验的必修课,是走向成熟的催化剂,是收获果实的剪刀手。数风流人物,都是历经挫折方成宏图伟业。勾践卧薪尝胆终成一代枭雄;马云买保险的失败,造就阿里巴巴;刘伟电断双臂与白血病的次次打击,但终成“双脚弹琴小王子”。然而,生活中小学生因暑假作业未完成而崩溃跳楼的例子引人深思。究其原因在生活过于一帆风顺,没有遭受过挫折。因此,有意无意遭受点滴挫折,可以使我们告别安逸,在风雨中接受洗礼,从而拥有自己的一片新天地。

笑对挫折,能够调整人生目标,实现梦想。歌德用尽半生学画无成,面对人生不断碰壁,及时调整了人生目标,在文学道路上做出一番成就。孙中山青年时悬壶济世,最后发现治一人不能拯救全社会,于是转而投身革命,终于成就了令世人敬佩的事业。老子云:“知人者智,自知者明;胜人者有力,自胜者强。”古人在千百年前就告诉我们要正确地认识自己,才能变得智慧和强大。但是,每个人都无法直接预料到适合干什么,只有在不断的遭遇挫折不断进行调整,找到最适合自己的路,最适合穿的鞋。

“不经一番寒彻骨,哪的梅花扑鼻香”启示大家梅花妖娆美丽的获得是经过冰冷的寒冬。

同样,个人的成才也需要勉面临不断的碰壁,需要展现乐观态度与艰难选择的切合之魅,最后在挫折中使自己不断成熟。

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篇1:英文电子邮件的写作基础

全文共 1951 字

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英文书信是一种最常用的应用文体,对于普通的私人信件通常由五部分组成:小编收集了英文电子邮件写作基础,欢迎阅读。

英文书信是一种最常用的应用文体,对于普通的私人信件通常由五部分组成:

1.信头:指发信人的地址和日期。写在信纸的右上角,可以从靠近信纸的中央写起。信头上面要留空白。先写发信人地址。地址的写法与汉语不同,要先写小地方,后写大地方。在地址的下面写上日期。日期的顺序是:月、日、年,或者:日、月、年。例如:may 17 XX。在年份之前有一个逗号。

2.称呼:指对收信人的称呼。写在信头之下,从信纸的左边开始。写信给熟悉的人,一般用dear…或my dear…作称呼。如:dear li lei,dear miss thomas或my dear dad.

3.信的正文:指信的主体部分。从称呼的下一行第一段顶边写。从第二段起每段第一个词都缩进3或5个字母写。

4.结束语:指正文下面的结尾客套话。一般从信纸的中央靠右写起,第一个字母大写,末尾用一逗号。在非正式的社交信中,常用yours或sincerely。假如对方是亲密的朋友,可用sincerely yoursyours等。

5.签名:指发信人签名。写在结束语的下面,稍偏右。

另外,英文信封写法与汉语的不同。一般把收信人的地址写在信封的中央或偏右下角。第一行写姓名,下面写地址。发信人的姓名和地址写在信封的左上角,也可以写在信的背面。

英文书信的格式

1、 信头(heading)

指发信人的姓名(单位名称)、地址和日期,一般写在信纸的右上角。一般公函或商业信函的信纸上都印有单位或公司的名称、地址、电话号码等,因此就只需在信头下面的右边写上写信日期就可以了。 英文地址的写法与中文完全不同,地址的名称按从小到大的顺序:第一行写门牌号码和街名;第二行写县、市、省、州、邮编、国名;然后再写日期。标点符号一般在每一行的末尾都不用,但在每一行的之间,该用的还要用,例如在写日期的时候。

2、 日期的写法:

如:1997年7月30日,英文为:july 30,1997(最为普遍); july 30th,1997;

30th july,1997等。1997不可写成97。

3、 信内地址(inside address):

在一般的社交信中,信内收信人的地址通常省略,但是在公务信函中不能。将收信人的姓名、地址等写在信头日期下方的左角上,要求与对信头的要求一样,不必再写日期。

4、 称呼(salutation):

是写信人对收信人的称呼用语。位置在信内地址下方一、二行的地方,从该行的顶格写起,在称呼后面一般用逗号(英国式),也可以用冒号(美国式)。

(1)写给亲人、亲戚和关系密切的朋友时,用dear或my dear再加上表示亲属关系的称呼或直称其名(这里指名字,不是姓氏)。例如:my dear father,dear tom等。

(2)写给公务上的信函用dear madam,dear sir或gentleman(gentlemen)。注意:dear纯属公务上往来的客气形式。gentlemen总是以复数形式出现,前不加dear,是dear sir的复数形式。

(3)写给收信人的信,也可用头衔、职位、职称、学位等再加姓氏或姓氏和名字。例如:dear prof. tim scales, dear dr.john smith。

5、 正文(body of the letter):

位置在下面称呼语隔一行,是信的核心部分。因此要求正文层次分明、简单易懂。和中文信不

同的是,正文中一般不用hello!(你好!)正文有缩进式和齐头式两种。每段书信第一行的第一个字母稍微向右缩进些,通常以五个字母为宜,每段第二行从左面顶格写起,这就是缩进式。但美国人写信各段落往往不用缩进式,用齐头式,即每一行都从左面顶格写起。商务信件大都采用齐头式的写法。

邮件范文:

15 huaihai street

shanghai, china

feb 6th, XX

peter brown

22, blachpool road(可以省略)

sydney 2140

australia

dearpeter,

i am very glad to hear from you.______________________

____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________

i must stop writing now, as i have a lot of work to do.

best wishes to you!

sincerely yours, wang xiaolan

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篇2:采访是消息写作的基础

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采访不仅是消息写作基础、也是所有新闻体(尤指新闻报道体裁)写作的前题和基础。要写消息,要写出好的、有新闻价值的消息,首先要求记者深入细致地采访,占有丰富、典型而真实的材料。这就要求记者要有较强的新闻敏感,善于获取新闻线索,掌握基本的采访方式、方法,有熟练的采访技巧。要求记者全身心地投入到实践中去,眼观六路,耳听八方,上天有路,入地有门,巧问详听,勤记细想,在有限的时间地进行成功的采访,为消息写作做好准备、打下基础。

采访和写作的关系非常密切。看起来是先有采访、后有写作,前者是认识实际的过程,后者是反映实际的过程,而实际上,采访能力强自然有助于写作效率的提高,而写作能力强,则可做到在采访中心中有数、心里有底、针对性强,从而提高采访的效率。

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篇3:写作方法教研实践是写好的基础

全文共 745 字

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不少青年教师向我吐苦水:想写论文却不知写什么、怎么写,情急之下只能东拼西凑应付了事。我发现这是一个很普遍的现象。

说一说我的经历吧。由于工作需要,学校安排我由上数学课改为上历史课,算是一个不小的改变。为了适应新工作,我集中全部精力钻研教学,真有点“两耳不闻窗外事,一心只想教学研”,阅读了大量名师、大师的中学历史教学参考资料,为的是能把历史课上得够权威。

可一段时间后,效果并不如我的预期,课堂沉闷、学生没劲、授课吃力成了我最大的困惑。静心反思,我顿悟,一味依赖教材、参考资料,缺少鲜活的素材,导致学生缺乏学习兴趣,正是我课堂的软肋所在。我觉得这是一个很好的课题,便对“学习兴趣与历史课教学的关系”作了深入研究。

另外,我还将竞争机制引入课堂教学,如上复习课,不是简单地重复讲解,而是采用“知识抢答赛”的形式,激发学生动手、动脑、动口,使课堂气氛格外活跃,让学生产生酣战后的痛快淋漓之感,在兴奋的状态下掌握知识。

后来,我把这两个案例从不同侧面整理进了我的教学论文《利用历史教学渗透德育之我见》《怎样提高历史课堂的教学效率》。

我在总结中这样写到:只有在备课中具备强烈的教育教学研究意识,才能进入较深的思维状态,授课才更有科学性和创造性,从而也为撰写论文打下基础

毋庸置疑,写好教育教学论文,最重要的一环就是认真做好教育教学的研究工作。研究的方面有很多,如教法、学法、基础知识、智力开发、非智力因素等。要把研究与讲课、听课、评课、试卷分析、作业讲评有机结合起来。除了研究,还要注重实践,从实践中来,上升为理论,再回到实践中去,既指导实践,又接受实践的检验。这样多次往复循环,再得出结论,就是不断研究教育教学的过程。夯实了一定的研究基础,又掌握了必要的论文写作知识,这样才能写出有真知灼见的教学论文来。

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篇4:2024年材料典型作文的写作基础

全文共 2459 字

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一、写作目标

材料是作文的重要组成部分,没有材料,作文之树只能是无本之木。有了材料,却没有选择恰当典型的材料,这样的作文也只能是有草之木——材不适意、牵强附会、不知所云。

所谓典型材料,就是对表现主题来说最有特征、最有代表性、最有表现力和说服力的事例或观念。

“材不在多,典型就行”,材料是为中心服务的,离开了中心,再多的材料也没有用,选择材料时,要选择那些典型的材料。典型的材料具有广泛的代表性和深刻的说服力,可以以一当十,以少胜多。当然能表现中心的典型材料并不是唯一的,只要我们能留心观察,勤于积累,善于思考,那些能揭示事物本质,具有广泛代表性和强大说服力的材料还是有很多的。

二、 技法指津

作文如酿蜜,蜂蜜之所以香甜,是因为蜜蜂选择了甜美的花朵。如果它们选择的是草叶或树叶,即使再勤劳,也只能瞎忙活一场。那么在写作过程中,怎样去选择典型的材料呢?

1、 占有丰富的材料

蜜蜂采得百花才能成蜜,工人炼得万石才能出金。只有占有丰富的材料,才能在写作过程中舒展自如、得心应手。魏巍在写作《谁是最可爱的人》时,通过采访收集了二十多则材料,正因为有了这些丰富的材料,才使作者在写作时有了充分提炼的基础

2、 甄选出典型材料

并不是每朵花都能酿出蜜来,并不是每块石头都可炼出金来。要写好一篇作文还必须从这些材料中甄选出最有说服力和表现力的典型材料。魏巍的《谁是最可爱的人》最后只用了三则材料,在二十多则材料中挑选出的这三则材料最具典型性,不仅使文章更简练,而且更有表现力。

如何在大量的材料中甄选出典型材料呢?

材料是为中心服务的,要选择那些围绕中心,突出中心富有表现力的材料。比如,下面的材料中,哪则是表现“自信”这一主题的典型材料呢?

①我参加演讲比赛,心理很紧张,但看到同学和老师鼓励的目光,我很快镇定下来,最终演讲赢得了热烈的掌声。

②日本著名指挥家小泽征尔一次赴欧洲参加指挥家大赛,演奏中他发现乐谱出现了错误,而在场的作曲家和评委都郑重声明没有问题,小泽征尔考虑再三,还是坚持自己的判断。最终小泽征尔在大赛中夺魁,因为这是评委故意设置的考题。

通过比较分析,我们不难发现,第二则才是典型的材料。

3、选择新颖的材料

即使有些材料能表现主题,也有一定的说服力和表现力,但使用得过多过滥,这样的材料也不能算是典型的材料,典型材料必须具有新颖的特点。

三、牛刀小试

爸爸,我心中的明星

年少的我们,谁心中没有一个偶像明星呢?在我的心中也有一颗耀眼的明星,他不是影星、歌星,更不是体育明星,他就是我的爸爸。

爸爸是村中的电工,在这个岗位上已经干了十几年,对业务非常熟悉。但天有不测风云,一次爸爸带着徒弟去撤电线,他们站在变电器上掐断电线,然后把线头顺在地上。然而徒弟工作经验太少,顺电线时身体失去了平衡,爸爸见状忙去拽他,他没掉下,爸爸却从5米多高的变电器上掉了下去。虽然最后万幸没有大碍,但从此以后,爸爸为救徒弟从5米高台上掉下来的一瞬永远铭刻在我的脑海里。

小学毕业的时候,由于学习的压力太大,抽考时我考得很不理想,回到家中便把自己关在屋子里,谁也不想见。正在外地学习的爸爸,听说了这件事后,连夜赶了回来。他轻轻地推开房门,看着我还没睡便走到我的身旁,用他那宽大的手掌抚摸着我的头,小声地说:“倩倩,爸知道你这次没考好,你的心情爸能理解。但你也不能灰心呀!世界上没有常胜将军,我相信我女儿一定能行!”爸爸的话虽然简短却有力。我沮丧的心情消失得无影无踪了。

第二天一早,他又坐车回学校去了。

从那以后,我轻轻松松地学习,终于考取了我心目中的学校。

爸爸送我来新学校的情景,我是永远都不能忘记的。爸爸一向很节俭,不乱花一分钱,可上学的那天他却花了150元钱雇了一辆车来送我。本来花10元钱便可以坐火车来的,却让我大大奢侈了一把。这对有钱人家来说是很平常的事,对电工父亲却是破天荒第一回。女儿走出了山村,去外面求学,父亲把这当成盛大的节日。到了学校之后,他仔细地帮我打点一切,宛如慈母一般。爸爸要坐火车回去的时候,我再也按捺不住我的情绪,眼泪流了下来。但我很快拭干了眼泪,爸爸告诉我要做一个坚强的人。

爸爸就是这样一个人,时刻想着别人,想着女儿,却从未想过自己。我爱我的电工爸爸,他永远是我心中的明星。

简评:本文的主题是表现爸爸的崇高和伟大,为此作者选择了三则具体材料:奋不顾身救徒弟;从学校连夜回来关心女儿;送女儿上学。这三则材料从不同角度表现了主题。特别是送女儿上学这一节很有特色。租车上学不惜排场,反映了父亲对女儿的重视,对知识的崇敬和渴望。尽管有些铺排和炫耀的心理,但没有人会怪他,反而油然而生一种崇敬之意。

四、误区示警:

1、 典型材料在表现主题时角度不能单一。应当从不同角度来表现人物的思想品质和性格特点,让人物形象丰满立体化。

2、 处理典型材料时,不要平均使用笔墨。应当详略结合,一般至少要有一则材料详写。

3、 如果在一篇作文中使用了多则典型材料,不能使它们互不相干,各自为政。应当让这些材料形成一个有机的整体,共同为表现主题服务,在安排上应该注意衔接过渡,通过什么方式来衔接这些材料要注意技巧。

五、延伸练习:

1、汶川地震后,温家宝总理说,一个很小的问题,乘以13亿,都会变成一个大问题;一个很大的总量,除以13亿,都会变成一个小数目。现在我们要说,一个很大的困难,除以13亿,都会变得微不足道;一点很小的善心都会变成爱的海洋。在西南大旱灾,南方水灾面前,正是每一个人的努力而汇成了强大力量,使我们能战胜巨大的灾难。只要人人都献出一点爱,世界将变成美好的人间。

请以“爱的奉献”为话题写一篇作文,要求选材精当,感情真挚,600字左右。

2、人的成长,犹如在沙滩上行走,每前进一步,都会留下一个脚印。人生中的每一步,有时至关重要。请你追溯自己的生活历程,截取一个或几个感受较为深切的片段,以“成长”为话题,写一篇文章。要求真实具体地描述事例,反映自己的成长和进步(可以是思想认识的,可以是道德修养的,可以是知识技能的,等等)。题目自拟,详略得当,不少于500字。

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篇5:作文写作基础教学

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要想学好作文就需要多看、多写、多练习,下面是小编为大家收集的关于作文写作基础教学,欢迎大家阅读!

一、用眼去学会观察,提高写作的兴趣。

观察是对事物的感性认识。生活中,因为学生缺乏这方面的认识。故而凭空设想的描写、生搬硬套的抒情议论是无味的。常言道:“创作于生活而又高于生活”。鲁迅曾说:“学习作文,第一须观察!”这就充分地说明了观察对写作的重要性。我们要从正面引导学生去观察和接触事物,注重学生观察能力的培养,使观察成为写作的第一手资料。那么,学生便水到渠成地写出真人真事,抒发出真情实感来。

观察不仅局限于“用眼看”,还用耳聆听,用身体去体会。

二、用口来学会说话,激活写作的表达能力。

说话是口语教学的实施,亦是口语教学的最终目的。新课标特别强调了口语交际的重要性。因此,我们要给学生创造说话的动机和机会,叫学生学会学语言,用语言。说话锻炼的方式很多,在生活中,笔者常从一下几点做起,收益甚多。其一,巧设课堂疑问,训练学生“答疑”的机会。多鼓励学生发表意见和见解,充分调动学生的积极性。其二,创设课堂情境,让学生在角色中“扮演”中说话。注重学生讨论。其三,图文并茂,让学生利用客观情景做“导游”者。启发学生从不同的角度学会观察、想象和言论。其四,针对突发事件,让学生有所“议”。从肯定中让学生感悟说话的信心和兴趣。培养学生的说话方法是多种多样的,我们应全方位多角度地给学生创造机会。

三、用手学会练笔,感染写作的动力。

矛盾说:“应当时时刻刻身边有一支笔和一本草薄,把你所见所闻所为所感随时记录下来……”的确,平时让学生多写日记,多写感言,多抒情议论,大到新闻论坛,小到遣词造句,灵感观后录等。久而久之,学生的语言也通顺了,素材也就丰富了。不但有话可说,而且越说越精了。不仅如此,我们在优化设计上给学生予以练笔,“临摹”写法上练笔,插图引发上指导练笔等。

四、用心学会推敲修改,领略写作的方法技巧。

写作中的推敲和修改,是写作灵感的源泉。常人说:“三分写七分改”;美国作家柯德说过:“我的作品不是写出来的,而是改出来的。”鲁迅说过:“作文没有什么秘诀,要说有,那就是多写多修改。”可见修改的重要性。教师要引导学生用心领会琢磨、修改。从字、词、句、段、篇,立意,语言特点、谋篇布局、手法结构等诸方面进行修改,学生从而从消化到整合,竟而达到“随模铸器”,写作便不失谱了。

五、用脑去学会联想,提升写作能力的提高。

在真情实感的同时,展开丰富合理的想像,习作会更生动形象。诸如看图作文,命题作文,材料作文等等。但是,联想的并非是胡思乱造,凭空设想,而是想像其隐藏的侧面或背景。中国教育学会“十一五”科研规划重点课题说道:“手脑潜能开发与高效学习方法的研究与实践”是手脑演写作文系列教程之一。发展儿童的观察、表达、想象、抽象思维等综合能力的训练,尤为重要!

如何提高写作的兴趣,让学生不但有话可说,而且说的精,形象生动,下笔形如汩汩流水,就要注重观察、说话、练笔、修改、联想式的综合改进,就要用眼、口、手、心、脑相结合的感官活动。

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篇6:英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

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下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言,考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章,然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分,特别建议你熟读,背诵,因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白,表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累,潜移默化。从某种意义上说,提高英语写作能力无捷径可走,你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关,没有任何人能代替你过。

因此,建议你下点苦功夫,把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况,并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心:你可以这个星期背,下个星期忘。这没有关系,相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后,你会惊讶的发现:I can think in English now!

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

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篇7:2024应用文写作基础知识最新

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作为职业经理人,尤其是每天批文十数件以上,且直辖员工达到5人以上的,你们是否经常因为文件起草不标准的问题而烦恼?那么今天,我们将为您解决这个困扰!——起草公文的基本排版格式

标题:二号方正大标宋(党口公文),二号方正小标宋(政口公文)

副标题为三号宋体加粗,格式为右对齐,作者单位全称、作者职务、姓名(注明“根据录音整理”及讲话的时间)

一、标题规范

1、标题字体。

标题字体为华文中宋,小二号字,加粗,格式为居中。副标题为宋体,三号字,加粗,格式为右对齐。

2、作者与题注。

一般公文只有标题,没有作者和题注。

如属讲话稿之类要标明作者的,应在标题下一行加上作者单位全称、作者职务、姓名,职务与姓名之间空一格。如属汇报类公文,则标明汇报单位全称,用楷体,三号字,加粗,居中。

如果属录音整理则应在讲话者的下一行注明“根据录音整理”及讲话的时间;如属汇报类公文,则要标注汇报时间。这一行全部用楷体,三号,加粗,居中;这一行往往要用小括号括起来。

二、抬头规范

请示、报告、函等公文应有明确的抬头。有抬头的,抬头顶格。一般发往全系统的文件抬头为“各地级市工商行政管理局”;要发往含广州、深圳在内的全系统则为“各地级以上市工商行政管理局”;如果仅发往部分市局则用“珠海、汕头等市工商行政管理局”。发往省局机关内部则是“省局机关各处室、直属各单位”;如果仅发部分处室则是“省局机关有关处室,直属有关单位”;收文单位少的,则直接用收文单位规范简称(见省局电话号码表)。同时发往市局与省局机关处室的,市局与省局机关处室之间用逗号,处室与直属单位之间用顿号。发往其它单位的公文一律用规范名称作抬头。

原则上省局不直接往县级单位发文。

三、纲目规范

1、一级标题。

一级标题为黑体字,标号后用顿号,标题尾无标点符号。一级标题应单独为一段。(例:一、标题规范)

2、二级标题。

二级标题用国标楷体,加粗,标题用括号;标号与标题之间没有符号,标题尾用句号。二级标题原则上应单独为一段。(例:(二)二级标题。)

3、三级标题。

三级标题用阿拉伯数字,标题文字用国标仿宋,加粗;标号与标题之间用小园点(要用全角),标题尾用句号。三级标题可根据实际情况单独或不独立设为一段。(例: 3.三级标题。)

4、四级标题。

四级标题用小括号阿拉伯数字,字体字号与正文一致;标号与标题之间没有符号。四级标题原则上不单独设段。(例:(4)四级标题。)

5、正文。

抬头与正文一律用国标仿宋,小三号,两端对齐,段前空两格(一般是中文两个汉字的距离),标点符号一律用全角。文本用标准A4纸,页面设置用标准格式(即页边距设置为上、下为2.54厘米,左右为3.17厘米,页眉1.5厘米,页脚1.75厘米,文档网络设置为“只指定行网络”,每页44行)。

标题之前空一行;标题与正文之间空一行;正文中一般不出现空行。

四、落款规范

如起草省局文件,应在文章结尾、正文右下角标注时间,但不标注起草单位(落款处发文时盖章);如果起草素质教育中心文件,则应在文章结尾标注单位和时间;如起草领导讲话及汇报等公文,因题注部分已经有作者和时间,不再另添加落款和时间。

如果属录音整理,应在文章结尾标明整理人,整理时间。

其它文体可不标注单位和时间。标注时间用“插入”中的“插入时间”(中文格式)例如“二○一五年五月二十日”。

任何公文、记录、整理都应插入页码。

以上是应用文写作的基本标准,在实践过程中,企业可根据实际情况合理修订。

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篇8:个雅思写作基础语法扣分点介绍

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雅思考试中写作作为文字输出最多的一个部分,不仅考察了同学们的英语写作能力,而且很多细节语法只是的掌握程度也很能在雅思写作中体现出来,而从以往的雅思写作考试来看,扣分的点往往不是那些有难度的语法,而是一些最基础的语法知识。

一、such as与for example的混用

我们知道,在表示举例子的时候,such as与like是完全等同的,如:Wild flowers such as/like orchids and primroses are becoming rare。

但是同学们对于Such as、for example 的把握还是不够准确。我们都知道,后者接句子前者接词语表示举例子。于是就有了下面的写法:

There is a similar word in many languages, such as in French and Italian。

这里的such as改为for example为好,因为in French and Italian其实是there is a similar word in French and Italian的简化,所以要用for example来引出例证。再来看几个类似的例子:

It is possible to combine computer science with other subjects, for example physics。

二、assume 及claim 使用不够准确

我们知道, think,assume,claim是议论文中常用引出观点的动词。在实际作文中,同学们往往认为几个词的意思是一样的,完全可以代换,所以拿过来就用。甚至还有同学把consider也拿过来与之混用。我们首先还是从定义来看这几个词的不同:

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篇9:童话寓言写作基础

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导语:童话寓言是比较有难度的体裁,需要学生发挥想象力。下面是童话寓言写作基础介绍,欢迎参考!

【技法解说】:

自小,我们就在童话和寓言的熏陶下长大,在那个五彩纷呈的童话世界里,让我们认识了什么是勇敢和善良,什么是无畏和坚强,更是让我们认识到什么是自私和狭隘,狠毒和狡猾。“狼外婆”的故事陪伴我们渡过了童年的时光。长大后,我们知道了更多的童话故事和寓言:“盘古开天”使我明白追求要执著、“女娲补天”让我们窥见到了为民造福的大志,那“嫦娥奔月”的故事时常在耳边萦绕、“神笔马良”让我明白了贪婪最终会摧毁自己……我还为安徒生笔下卖火柴的小女孩流过泪,为可怜的白雪公主找到自己的幸福而兴奋不已……所有这些,都给我们创造了一个绚丽多彩的童话世界。

在这里面,感受到的都是奇异的情节和虚拟的事物和境界,但它们无一不是以现实生活为基础,通过夸张、拟人、象征等的表现手法反映的现实社会生活中的情形,它们富含义讽喻和教育意义,透过具体浅显的故事,寄寓深奥的道理。想象和联想是它们最重要的特征,

童话与寓言,它们常常通过借古喻今、借物喻人、借小喻大或借此喻彼的手法,揭示事物丰富的内涵和蕴含着的深刻的道理,我们在进行写作时,通过也可以运用这样一种形式,来表达自己的观点,抒发自己的情感,只要把握了它们的写作特点,必定能写出高品质的文章来的。

【成功佳作1】

留给明天

天津一考生

3030年的一个下午,伊波懊恼地坐在窗口,呆呆地望着眼前一座座早已人去楼空的大厦。头顶灰黄灰黄的天空还下着毛毛细雨,空气中弥漫着难闻的气味。哎,又是酸雨!伊波不由深深叹了口气。

就在几天前,地球上的最后一批人也集体迁往建设好的火星,抛弃了这已满目疮痍的人类故土。当时,伊波正在地下126层的公寓里休息,接到E-mail通知时,电梯已断电了,当他气喘吁吁地爬到地面时,火箭已经升空了。他绝望了,对天空大声喊着:“还有我呀!不能这样把我丢弃呀!”无人回应,地面上所有机械设备都被掐断电源,伊波无法与火星上的人们联络,更何况人们原本就没打算在火星、地球之间架设太空站——成本太高了。

空虚、恐惧一次次袭来,几乎让伊波透不过气来。突然,“咚咚咚”,工作室的门被敲响了,有人还没走?伊波忘了可以用遥控器开门,快步冲到门口,打开了门。啊!

“好啊,真还没走光啊!”金丝猴气急败坏地吼道:“人类真自私!把地球搞成这样,就开溜!”

伊波还没回过神来,其它动物也七嘴八舌地议论着,谩骂着。丹顶鹤清清嗓子,叫道:“安静安静,各位请安静!我来讲几句。先生,别生气,小猴是过火了点,可它讲的一点也没错。虽然我们智商没你们高,可我们很明白是谁把我们共有的家园污染成这副模样,树和动物一样稀少,凑在一起连林子都算不上。气候反复无常,六月下雪,一月不是酸雨就是洪灾。天是黄的,土是黄的,连空气里都是黄沙、二氧化碳。一切这么衰败,是谁造成的?以后火星也会成为这个样子,那时怎么办?再跑?”

丹顶鹤还在喋喋不休地数落着。伊波心里复杂极了,人类为什么迁徙?地球为什么会这样子?伊波流泪了,为可怜的地球流泪,更为可耻的人类流泪。

“我要替人类赎罪,建设好今天,留一个美好的地球给明天。”伊波下定决心,开始愚公移山般地工作,他想着,一天种下一百棵树,一天就可以为明天创造亿分之一的美好。哪怕耗尽这一生,他也要尽自己全力,改造满目疮痍的家园,留给明天一个温馨和谐的社会。

【名师指津】:

本文是一篇科幻为体裁的童话作文,文章以丰富的想象、合理的联想,虚构了一个千年以后的故事:一名叫伊波的人类未能逃离千疮百孔的地球,成为最后一个地球人。如何面对眼前的现实,如何重新与地球上的其它动物共存?伊波决心以实际行动解决这些问题,于是,伊波下定决心为绿化地球奉献自己的一生,文章最后以 “留给明天一个温馨和谐的社会”为结束语,从而点明题意,回应了话题。不言而喻,这篇童话所谴责的是破坏环境的人类,希望唤醒人们的良知,从长远看,保护环境,为了明天,建设好家园。

【锦囊妙计之一】

联想想象要有现实基础

“留给明天”什么,考生没有直接地回答,而是通过联想和想象,虚构出了一个千年后的人类逃离地球的故事,来说明了唯一的一名人类“伊波”和其它动物为给明天留下一个和谐的社会而努力拼搏的精神。环境是人类自己亲手破坏的,那么重建也是人类义不容辞的义务。可见,童话的写作,最重要的一个特点就是联想和想象要在现实社会生活中找到它的缩影,而不是胡思乱想,这样,虚构出来的故事才会有现实的意义,才能警醒人们,给人以启迪。

【成功佳作2】

卖书

贵州一考生

话说唐僧取经回来后,花果山众猴见孙悟空得道成仙,无一猴不羡慕。其中一只叫小三儿的,也梦想着有一天能赚钱出名。

一天,它问孙悟空:“大王,要怎样才能赚大钱呢?”孙悟空眨眨眼睛,想了一会儿说:“最近流行出书热,你也写本书吧。”

小三儿心想,我别的什么都不会,就是写作文还行。以前考试,我的作文还得过第一呢。对,写书。

它兴冲冲地回了家,用三个月时间,打造出一本《新大唐西域记》,拿去给孙悟空审核。孙悟空翻了翻看了看。“晤,不错。写得真的不错。”小三儿挺高兴,回去找了家出版社,印了几千本书开始销售。

书上了市,反响平平。两个月过去,才卖了一千本不到。怪了,怎么没人买呢?小三儿想不通。于是它上街作起了市场调查。

“《新大唐西域记》呀?没听说过。”

“什么?看书?谁有那闲工夫。”

“对不起,我急着回家上网。”

“《新大唐西域记》?买了,还没来得及看呢!”,

问了几个人,不是没听说过就是买了没看,理由大都是没时间呀、要上网呀什么的。小三儿有点儿受打击。它又问了一个人:“你看过《新大唐西域记》吗?”

“看过看过,写得挺好。”

小三儿挺高兴,问道:“你是买了书还是向别人借的。”

那人像看怪物似的看着小三儿:“你有病吧!现在谁还买书呀!网上看书又快又实惠。好好学学吧你。”

网上卖书,成吗?小三儿边走边想,肯定已有人发了我的书。

“哟,这不是三儿嘛。怎么样,书卖得好不好呀?”猪八戒走来,问道。

小三儿摇了摇头。猪八戒听它说了事情的始末,抚着肚子告诉小三儿:“你呀,一开始就不应该听猴哥的,你应该把书发到网上去,那样才会火爆大卖,听我的,没错。”

于是小三儿回到家,把书发到了网上。果然不出一个月,点击率就已经非常高了。小三儿买了套西服,买了部手机,成了有钱人。

孙悟空见到它,语重心长地对它说:“现在像你这样写作,过不了多久人们就会忘记你,经典的东西是应该能保存很久的东西。”

小三儿不以为意,继续做着网络写手。

两百年过去了,人们对网络书籍的兴趣已经淡了。很少有人再上网看书,小三儿又成了花果山上普普通通的一只猴子。

天庭,孙悟空对八戒说:“八戒,你看,还是我说的对吧。书籍能永久保存人类的思想。通过看书,才能有所提高,什么网络呀,信息时代呀,不过是过眼云烟,就像一阵风吹过,什么印儿也没留下。”猪八戒无奈地笑了笑,低头看看人间书店里来来往往的人群。

【名师指津】

体裁形式的创新,已经成为高考作文一个重要的得分因素,但体裁形式不是一个孤立的东西,它必须紧密结合内容,为内容的表达服务,才会活起来,真正发挥作用。《卖书》一文的即以“童话”的方式揭示了现实社会生活中真实现状,它借用《西游记》的故事,目标直指出版界和图书阅读中的种种不良倾向,呼唤优良阅读传统的回归。文章语言幽默诙谐,使人忍俊不禁。

【锦囊妙计之二】

借古喻今  新编童话

近几年来,高考中新编童话类作文获得不少青睐,常常借用文学作品的人物或故事情节,融入当今社会的基本观念,以新的故事,阐述一个深刻的道理,即借古喻今。本文就是这样的一篇典范,由于网络的出现,人们的阅读习惯已经改变了不小,如何看待这个现象,考生借用《西游记》中人物,再假设了一只小猴,通过出版纸质书籍和运用网络写书进行比较,传递出自己的观点:只有书籍才能永久保存人类的思想。可见,同学们在写作童话时,也可采用借古喻今的写法,新编一个童话来阐明自己的观点。

【成功佳作3】

“问”点亮了生命的灯

四川一考生

一个漆黑的夜晚,一个远行寻佛的苦行僧走到一个荒僻的村落中。漆黑的村道上,络绎的村民们在默默地你来我往。

苦行僧转过一条村巷,看到一团晕黄的灯从巷子的深处静静地亮过来。身旁的一位村民说:“孙瞎子过来了。”

僧人百思不得其解。一个双目失明的盲人,一般地说他没有白天黑夜的概念,他挑一盏灯笼岂不令人迷惑和可笑?

僧人问道:“敢问施主真是一位盲者吗?”

那挑灯笼的盲人告诉他:“是的,从踏进这个世界,我就一直双眼混浊”。

僧人又问:“既然你什么都看不见,那你为何挑一盏灯笼呢?”

盲者说:“现在是黑夜吧,我听说在黑夜里没有灯光的映照,那么世界上的人都和我一样是盲人,所以我就点燃了一盏灯笼”。

僧人若有所悟地说:“原来您是为别人照明了?!”

“不,我是为自己!”盲人淡淡地答道。

为你自己?僧人又愣了。

盲人缓缓地问僧人:“你是否因为夜色漆黑而被其他人碰撞过?”

僧人说:“是的,就在刚才,被两个不留心的人碰撞过”。

盲人听了,就得意地说:“但我就没有,虽说我是盲人,我什么也看不见,但我挑了这灯笼,既为别人照亮,也更让别人看到我自己,这样,他们就不会因为看不见而碰撞我了”。

苦行僧听了,顿有所悟。

他仰天长叹说:“我奔波天涯海角寻觅我佛,没想到佛就在我的身边哦!人的佛性就像一盏灯,只要我点亮了,即使我看不见佛,但佛会看到我自己的。”

是啊,在生活中有许多疑问,有人好问,有人不好问,苦行僧就在一处不经意的问当中寻找到了自己踏遍千山万水都没找到的东西。是“问”点亮了那盏生命之灯,既照亮了别人,更照亮了他自己,只有先照亮别人,才能够照亮我们自己。

为别人点燃我们自己的生命之灯吧!这样,在生命的夜色里,我们才能找到自己的平安和灿烂!

【名师指津】

“问”什么,怎样“问”,“问”中有什么哲理?考生通过一个故事,向我们传达了自己的观点:“问”点亮了生命之灯。考生首先虚构了一个漆黑的夜晚这样一个场景,然后通过盲人与僧人之间的对话,最后提示出了本文的主旨,文体符合寓言的特征。本文很有禅味,有寓意,有哲理,给人以生活的启迪。

【锦囊妙计之三】

浅显易懂  以小见大

寓言的特点一般为小、少、简、深。小是指其篇幅短小;少是指涉及的人物数量少;简是指故事情节简单;深是指它所蕴涵的道理深刻。本文内容简洁,情节简单,但却蕴含着深刻的人生道理。这种写法即是以小见大的写法。本文人物只有二个,情节只是僧人对盲人夜里提灯的疑问,故事浅显易懂,简单明了,然而,正是这一浅显的故事中,却揭示出了一个人生的大道理。

【成功佳作4】

“三”的奇遇

湖北一考生

自从“三”被苍颉老爸造出来以后,就一直不服气,整天拉长着脸。他想:“凭什么我总是排在最后一位,当个‘季军’!”既没有“一”的洒脱利落,又没有“二”的出双入对。于是,“三”决定离家出走,自个儿闯荡江湖。

“三”来到了一所学校的外面,听见里面的孩子正在早读。于是“三”一溜烟窜上了窗台。“三人行,必有我师……”“三”字听到自己的名字,往桌上一看,只见《论语》写着这样一句话。“三”是又惊又喜,忙问自己的影子:“你在这儿过得好吗?”影子说:“很好呀,孩子们每天都要诵读我们呢!如‘三思而行’,‘三省吾身’……大家都很爱戴我们,说我们代表了变幻与重复!代表了众人的力量,代表了稳定与踏实。这样吧,我带你到处看看吧!”说着影子从书本上钻了出来,拉起“三”往外就跑。

他们来到书店,书店许多书上都有“三”的身影,有些书干脆就直接用“三”命名,如《三字经》、《三言二拍》,这可把“三”给喜坏了。他随手翻开一本书,只见上面写着“举一反三”,“三”一看当场凉了半截,口里喃喃道:“干吗要反对我呢?”影子听到了,笑着说:“你可别会错了意,你在这儿是含有‘灵活、多变、有内涵’的意思喔!说的是例举一个事例,可以推及到其他事例。你可是变幻女神了!‘三’不光只是代表无用功的重复,而代表了一次又一次更深刻的理解,每次都有变化,每次都有新的意义,不停止不前,勇于创新。”听着听着,“三”不觉脸红了,觉得人们对他其实挺好。

“三”又随影子来到了人群之中,突然听见一个人说:“三个臭皮匠,顶个诸葛亮。”话还没听完,“三”又急了,怎么又把我与“臭”字放到一起。影子赶快安慰说:“你又弄错了,这儿的‘三’代表了众人的力量。你可是团结女神了!‘三’个人字,便是‘众’。在人们口中,你便是团结互助的象征。你还可以与‘人’字组合,成为‘仨’字呢!就是三个人的意思。看,这多亲切呦!”“三”觉得好感动,其实自己是个很有用的字呢!

“三”又来到了木工房,可到处找,这儿哪有“三”啊!影子笑着说:“别急别急,你看见桌子上的三角形了吗?三角形也有‘三’,而且三角形是最稳定的图形了。你在这儿可是安定,踏实的象征呢!”“三”点点头,略有所悟。

这时,苍颉出现在了“三”的面前,他笑着说:“小三儿,这回想通了吧?”“三”点点头。他想,其实每个汉字都承传着一种意义,代表着一种源远流长的文化,自己还自怨自艾什么呢!

【名师指津】

本文运用拟人的手法,写了“三”一路的所见所闻,在学校受到的欢迎,书店里的尴尬,人群中的感动和木工房里的感悟,4个场面,从不同的角度诠释了“三”的作用和意义,最后指出“每个汉字都承传着一种意义,代表着一种源远流长的文化”这一主旨。全文构思新巧而又紧扣题意,特别是叙述简明生动,是一篇优秀的高考寓言类作文。

【锦囊妙计之四】

拟人手法  形象生动

寓言的写作,一般要通过生动形象的情节去打动读者,感染读者,给读者以深刻的道理,因此,常常运用拟人的手法进行写作。这样,就会使形象鲜明活泼,避免了刻板抽象的说教。从本文来看,考生把“三”拟人化,赋予“三”以人的个性,特别是在与“影子”的对话,更是突出了它的性格特征:在学校时的惊喜的神态,因误解了“举一反三”的而“脸红”,“三”代表“众”时的感动和“三角形”表示稳定时的感悟的神情,都活灵活现的,逼真的表现了出来。

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篇10:事务文书的写作基础

全文共 2501 字

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事务文书是机关、团体、企事业单位在处理日常事务时用来沟通信息、安排工作、总结得失、研究问题的实用文体,小编收集了事务文书的写作基础,欢迎阅读。

常用事务文书写作

——调研报告,工作总结,经验材料的写作 ——调研报告,工作总结,经验材料的写作

马正平 教授

四川师范大学文学院 四川师大写作思维研究所

马正平,四川师范大学文学院教授,四川师范大学写作与思 马正平, 马正平 维研究所所长;写作学专业研究生学科负责人,领衔导师; 教代会主任.美国亚当史密斯大学荣

誉文学博士.

授 课 人 简 介

国务院享受特殊津贴专家,四川省首届有突出贡献的优秀专 家,四川省首届高校教学名师,四川省高校优秀教学团队带 头人. 中国写作学会副会长,中国思维科学学会常务理事,中华美 学学会会员,四川省写作学会执行会长,四川省人大代表. 研究方向 研究方向:美学,中国古代文论,写作学,思维学,语文教 育学 代表性论文:《50年来意境研究述评》,《50年来 代表 论文: 境界阐释述评》,《知行递变论》,《写作文化论》,《写 作分形论》,《非构思写作学宣言》, 《思维本质与分类 新论》,《第三条路:走向生成主义语文教学观》,《21世 纪作文教学应该有一个什么样的体系?》等.

授 课 人 简 介

代表性专著:《写作行为论》,《写作文化论》, 《写作生长伦》,《现代写作教学原理与实践》, 《现代写作学批判与建构》,《生命的空间:〈人间 词话〉当代解读》. 代表性教材:国家教育部"面向21世纪课程教材"— —《高等写作学引论》,《高等写作思维训练教程》, 《高等文体写作训练教程:基本文体》,《高等文体 写作训练教程:实用文体》,《中学作文教学新思 维》. 代表性获奖:曾先后获3次获省政府优秀科研成果三 等奖,1次获四川省高等教育优秀成果一等奖.

一 前 决 策 事 务 公 文

一,前决策公文:论说类 前决策公文 论说类 (一)研究类 调研报告——迫切性,考察性, ——迫切性 1,调研报告——迫切性,考察性,析因 献策性,系统性, 性,献策性,系统性,参考性 工作研究(理论文章) 2,工作研究(理论文章) (二)对策类 3,工作计划[纲领,纲要,办法,细则, 工作计划[纲领,纲要,办法,细则, 方案]——前瞻性 目标性,措施性, 前瞻性, 方案]——前瞻性,目标性,措施性, 阶段性, 阶段性,未来型

二 决 策 性 事 务 公 文

二,决策类公文:论述类 决策类公文: (一)论说类 4,讲话稿——演说性,概括性,指示性 讲话稿——演说性,概括性, ——演说性 (二)记述类 (1)凭证类/非行文 凭证类/ 会议记录——记载性,凭证性,全面性, ——记载性 5,会议记录——记载性,凭证性,全面性, 现场感 (2)历史类/非行文 历史类/ 6,大事记——重要性(政军经法科文),奇 大事记——重要性(政军经法科文),奇 ——重要性 ), 异性,突发性, 异性,突发性,资料性

三 后 决 策 事 务 公 文

三,后决策·论说类 后决策· (一)周知类 7,简报 汇报类/上行文 (二)汇报类 上行文 8,工作总结——回顾性,反思性, 工作总结 回顾性,反思性, 回顾性 概括性,规律性,未来性, 概括性,规律性,未来性,调整性 经验材料——成绩性,细节性, 成绩性, 9,经验材料 成绩性 细节性, 经验性,做法性, 经验性,做法性,榜样性 10,述职报告—— 10,述职报告

一,传统预成性写作

例如: 例如:

"理论文章"的写作方法 理论文章" (一)标题: 标题: 公文式标题:——关于 关于…… 1,公文式标题:——关于…… 2,论文式标题:——《……的启示》 论文式标题:——《……的启示》 的启示 提问式标题:——如何……?为何…… 如何…… ……? 3,提问式标题:——如何……?为何……? 4,复合式标题: 复合式标题: 正文: (二)正文: 提出问题( ):根据现状 提出需要解决的问题. 根据现状, 1,提出问题(总):根据现状,提出需要解决的问题. 分析问题( 分析现状,探讨存在问题的原因, 2,分析问题(分)分析现状,探讨存在问题的原因,为解决问 题提供有效途径. 题提供有效途径. 解决问题: 3,解决问题:提出解决问题的对策

传 统 预 成 性 写 作

几个重点问题

要精心选材. 1,要精心选材. ——怎样才能做到精心选材 怎样才能做到精心选材? ——怎样才能做到精心选材? 要掌握剪裁艺术. 2,要掌握剪裁艺术. ——怎样才能掌握剪裁艺术 怎样才能掌握剪裁艺术? ——怎样才能掌握剪裁艺术? 合理设计文章结构. 3,合理设计文章结构. ——怎样才能设计合理文章结构 怎样才能设计合理文章结构? ——怎样才能设计合理文章结构?

贰 当 代 生 成 性 写 作

二,当代生成性写作

写作的材料,结构,语言, 写作的材料,结构,语言, 材料 标题是运用一套思维操作方法进 标题是运用一套思维操作方法进 行生成和不是预设,构想, 行生成和不是预设,构想,猜想 的写作行为,写作学与写作教学. 的写作行为,写作学与写作教学.

案 例 演 示

例 1:

关于沙尘暴的思考

非 构 思 主 义 写 作

构成分析或过程分析:——我所看到的疯狂的沙尘暴 我所看到的疯狂的沙尘暴? 一,构成分析或过程分析:——我所看到的疯狂的沙尘暴?

构成分析:描写你看到的沙尘暴到来后的世界的样子; 1,构成分析:描写你看到的沙尘暴到来后的世界的样子;或—— 2,过程分析:叙述你看到的沙尘暴到来的故事. 过程分析: 叙述你看到的沙尘暴到来的故事.

二,原因分析:——为什么会出现沙尘暴? 原因分析:——为什么会出现沙尘暴? 为什么会出现沙尘暴

内蒙沙漠的南移; 1,内蒙沙漠的南移; 原始的过度放牧; 3,原始的过度放牧; 1,不但影响人们健康; 不但影响人们健康; 3, 森林的乱砍乱伐; 2,森林的乱砍乱伐; 田鼠对草原的破坏. 4,田鼠对草原的破坏. 2,而且影响社会经济的发展; 而且影响社会经济的发展;

功能分析:——沙尘暴的危害 三,功能分析:——沙尘暴的危害

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篇11:古诗词的写作基础

全文共 5432 字

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笔者曾翻阅过许多诗词研究者的著作,真是百家争鸣`百花齐放。小编收集古诗词写作基础,欢迎阅读。

1 孕育阶段

大家都知道,工厂生产产品都有个产前准备阶段,即原材料供应阶段,恰好诗词创作也有准备阶段,我们把它称之为孕育阶段,这个阶段有两方面的内容要向大脑这个加工厂供应。

一是情感。诗属于那种浪漫的抒情文学,诗生于情,情成于诗。情是诗的源泉,没有情哪来的诗。而情又借助于诗,把豪壮和凄婉等情绪发挥的淋漓尽致,使人体会到那种喜怒哀乐的情感。因此可以这样说,没有情的诗不能算是真正意义上的诗。情感的产生又是通过外界事物对大脑各种各样的刺激产生的,作为我们来说。就要主动接受外界(生活)供应的素材,孕育出或喜或悲的情感,为诗词创作做好产前准备。

二是灵感。灵感是经过长期实践积累,突然间爆发出的具有创造性的思维(智慧)。这与文化层次和阅历(经验)成正比关系,文化越高,阅历越丰富,爆发灵感的机会就越多。一般艺术家的灵感都与艺术形式有关,如画家可能是构图和色彩;舞蹈家可能是动作和造型;小说家可能是情节与结局;而诗词人则是字词和语句。灵感创作往往是精华,它体现了艺术家的风采和光芒。灵感不可能时刻伴陪你,但它却隐蔽在灵魂的某个角落,一旦激发,势不可挡。灵感的特点是稍纵即逝,所以当来了灵感时,一定记载下来以备后用,否则就会踪影全无,后悔不迭。

2 执笔阶段

这就和工厂中加工产品一样,要进行加工生产了,这也是诗词创作的执笔阶段。这个阶段大致分三个步骤:

一是选材。就是选择什么样的体裁,最适合你的诗词创作。诗词的体裁的确名目繁多,有古诗词和现代诗;诗和词;绝句和律诗;还有各种词谱的选择等等不一而足。这就需要看作者喜欢什么体裁,什么样的体裁最适合表达出作者的思想和感情,还要取决于情感内容的多少。这些都需要量体裁衣,根据作者的实际需求来选择。

二是动手。选好体裁后,就按着诗词格式的要求去写就行了。最好是按着你的习惯和方式去创作,是白天还是晚上,是一气呵成还是多天完成。最基本的条件就时,采取何种习惯和方式更适合激发你的灵感,你就采取哪种。

三是修改。诗不厌改,越改越好,越改越精。一首诗写好后,最好是放置几天后再改,因为马上修改时你还没脱离当时思路,还存在一定的思维定式,效果不会太好。修改时从三个方面入手:一个是进一步调整情感,修正偏颇不妥之处;另一个是进一步匡正格律,修复差错不适之处;再一个是进一步锤炼字句,修改疏忽大意之处。

3 发表阶段

这和工厂生产的产品需要销售到客户手里,被用户所接受一样,作品是要发表给别人看的。一般有有两个含义:一是让别人理解你的思想感情;二是便于别人批评指正,提高自己的写作水平。当然如果是精品,还会起到宣传教育的重大作用。

下面就从诗词的基础知识开始讲解:

二 五言古绝押韵简介

范例:

鹿 柴 作者:王维

空山不见人,

但闻人语响。

返影入深林,

复照青苔上。

解释:

五言古绝即古体绝句的简称。每首四句,每句五言(字)。

初学古诗词的朋友,我建议最好是从五言古绝入手。这是因为它不用严格的讲究格律,限制也少,容易学习和掌握。最大特点是句中字没有平仄要求,只对句末字有平仄要求。而且语句短小精炼,极易成文。文风自然古朴,含义深刻。

五言古绝最主要的要求是合乎押韵,二`四句押韵,第一句多不押韵。仄声韵和平声韵都可以用,但一般不混押。须注意的是第三句句尾平仄应与相邻的二`四句相反。见范例:二`四句韵脚响和上字,押的是江阳韵,都是仄声韵,第一句没押韵。第三句尾林字是平声字,与二`四句仄声字相反。

常用格式(每句尾字):

1 = , (+) 。 - , (+) 。

2 + , (=) 。 / , (=) 。

3 (+) , (+) 。 - , (+) 。

4 (=) , (=) 。 / , (=) 。

注释:

- :平

/ :仄

() :押韵

+ :仄可平

= :平可仄

还有拗格,因不常用,这里就不举例了。有需要的朋友可和我说。

朋友们可从五言古绝试做起,这个并不繁杂,也不困难。只要这个入门了,其他的也就快了。各位朋友快发帖作诗,千万别不好意思,只有迈出第一步,以后才会有提高和创新。我一定认真评点,相互学习,共同提高。

三 五绝平仄简介

范例:

听筝 作者:李端

鸣筝金栗柱,素手玉房前。

欲得周郎顾,时时误拂弦。

解释:

李端(?~?)字正己,唐朝赵州(今河北赵县)人,大历进士,授秘书省校书郎,官终杭州司马。“大历十才子”之一。喜作律体。有《李端诗集》。这首小诗写一弹筝女子为取宠故意出错的情态,写的惟妙惟肖,委婉细致,富有情趣。

五绝指五言律诗,即律体绝句,它是唐代建立的新诗体,有着较为严格的格律,也称近体诗。它讲究平仄交替配合,有较强的节奏感和韵律感。律诗一般把上下两句称一联,前一句叫出联或出句,后一句叫对联或对句。一个要求是联内上下两句相应的字必须平仄相对,但在实际应用中,偶数(2`4`~~~)字平仄相对即可。另一个要求是相邻两联中,前一联的对联里的偶数字,和后一联出联里的偶数字必须平仄相同(想粘),。就如范例中的第2句“手”和“房”与第3句的“得”和“郎”都是平仄相同,也可参考笔者发的《送海云霞》一帖。违反了这两条,就叫“失对”和“失粘”。五律基本平仄格式:

1 仄起,首句不入韵。

+ / - - / ,- - / / (-) 。

= - - / (/) ,+ / / - (-) 。

2 平起,首句不入韵。

= - - / / ,+ / / - (-) 。

+ / - - / ,- - / / (-) 。

3 仄起,首句入韵。

+ / / - (-) ,- - / / (-) 。

= - - / / ,+ / / - (-) 。

4 平起,首句入韵。

= - / / (-) ,+ / / - (-) 。

+ / - - / ,- - / / (-) 。

注释: - :平 / :仄 () :押韵 + :仄可平 = :平可仄

五绝一般是仄起,首句不入韵。最后再强调一下,律诗一定要严格按照格律要求创作。

否则就不能称之为律诗。笔者用几个字把其主要要求概括一下:一是要押韵;二是讲平仄;

三是须对仗;四是有诗意。

还有一点要解释的是,按理说古律诗应按古声`古韵写作,但现代人已经极少按这个要求去做了。为了使初学者朋友方便学习,我们在本论坛一律采取今声今韵。

欢迎朋友按格律发表作品!四 七绝变格简介

范例:

凉州词 作者:王之涣

黄河远上白云间,一片孤城万仞山。

羌笛何须怨杨柳,春风不度玉门关。

讲解:

王之涣(688~742)字季陵,唐朝晋阳(今山西太原)人。官文安县尉,后辞官远游边塞山水,可以说是盛唐时期的著名边塞诗人,所作之诗在当时“传乎乐章,布在人口”,可惜传世之作仅六首,且都是热情洋溢的佳作。这首诗为出塞远征将士所写,道出了将士在雄奇而苍凉的境地中,凝重深沉地对遥远故乡的一种思念。用“春风不度玉门关”的佳句来暗喻朝廷恩泽不及边塞,却又不失豪迈悲壮之气。

七律(四句)也称七绝,也是近体诗的一种,可以看作五绝字句在量上的增加(变形)。在五绝每句前加上与前二字平仄相反的二字即成七绝,七绝首字可平可仄,第三字和五绝的平仄是相同的。七绝有如下平仄格式:

1 平起,首句入韵。

= - + / / - (-) ,+ / - - / / (-) 。

+ / = - - / / ,= - + / / - (-) 。

2 仄起,首句入韵。

+ / - - / / (-) ,= - + / / - (-) 。

= - + / - - / ,+ / - - / / (-) 。

3 平起,首句不入韵。

= - + / - - / ,+ / - - / / (-) 。

+ / = - - / / ,= - + / / - (-) 。

4 仄起,首句不入韵。

+ / = - - / / ,= - + / / - (-) 。

= - + / - - / ,+ / - - / / (-) 。

注释:

- :平 / :仄 () :押韵 + :仄可平 = :平可仄参考。

七绝通常是首句入韵,不入韵的少见。它的写作特点是:语浅情深;句绝意广;音在弦外;遐思无限,好多古诗人的七律(四句)都具备这个特点,各位朋友可参考。

另外,仄仄脚的五`七言律诗还有一种较常见的变格句型,就是句末倒数第二字的仄声,与句末倒数第三字的平声对换, 形成变格句式,而且变格后倒数第五个平可仄字,就不允许变化了。 如:

五言 七言

正常 = - - / / + / = - - / /

变格 - - / - / + / - - / - /

五 律诗拗救简介

范例:

1 夜宿山寺 李白

危楼高百尺,手可摘星辰。

不敢高声语,恐惊天上人。

2 江南春 杜牧

千里莺啼绿映红,水村山郭酒旗风。

南朝四百八十寺,多少楼台烟雨中。

解释:

李白(701~762),字太白,好青莲居士。唐朝陇西成记(今甘肃天水附近人),生于中亚碎叶。诗风雄奇豪放,想象丰富多彩,语言流畅自然。善于从民歌`神话中吸取营养和素材,构成其特有的瑰伟绚烂的色彩和富有积极的浪漫主义精神。有《李太白集》。

杜牧(803~852)字牧之,唐朝京兆万年(今陕西细长安)人。进士出身,后来做过几任刺史,观终中书舍人。诗文中多指陈时政之作,多清丽生动。有《樊川文集》。

在律诗中,仄平脚句型(- - / / - ;+ / - - / / -)中,五言的第一字和七言的第三字必须用平声,如用仄声就被认为是拗(不顺畅)。前人谓之“孤平”,意即孤单单的一个平(韵脚和七言首字+除

外),这也是犯了古今诗人之大忌,把孤平视为洪水猛兽,唯恐避之不及。那么既然是大忌,最好还是回避为妙,办法有两个:

一是避免出现孤平。即在仄平脚的律诗中,五言第一字`七言第三子必须使用平声字。

二是想办法救孤平。如果此处用了仄声,那就在孤平后面的邻字(五言第三子`七言第五字)改用平声作为补救,这就是常说的孤平拗救,也算合律。格式为:

五言 七言

正常 - - / / - + / - - / / -

拗救 / - - / - + / / - - / -

如范例一末句的“天”字救“恐”字;笔者《五绝 谋生》末句的“情”字救“哪”字。

另外拗救字不但可以救本句的孤平,还可以救上句相同位置的仄拗和其后一字(上句倒第二字)仄拗。如范例二末句的烟字救上句的“八”和“十”字;笔者《月中歌舞》常字救上句的“夜”和“挽”。

拗救处的字使用时也是比较灵活的,不救拗时也常有用平声的现象,就不举例说明了。另外律诗的平平脚(句尾两字)句型和仄仄脚句型的倒数第三字,忌讳再用平或仄声字,以避免出现三连平和三连仄现象。这都不是太常见的,也就不细说明了。

笔者在这里只是简单的把拗救间介绍一下,其实你只要按正常格式写诗,就不会出现拗救的麻烦的。所以对于初学朋友来讲,最好是正格协作,熟练后因排字遣句的需要,再适当地使用拗救`变格及其他。

六 五言律诗对仗简介

范例:

春日忆李白 杜甫

白也诗无敌,飘然思无群。

倾心庾开府,俊逸鲍参军。

渭北春天树,江东日暮云。

何时一尊酒,重与细论文。

解释:

杜甫(712~770),字子美,唐朝襄阳(今湖北)人。曾屡考进士不中,曾在朝廷为官,但不大。后弃官,在成都营建杜甫草堂。晚年携家出蜀,病死湘江途中。其诗见证了唐由盛至衰的过程,被后人称为“史诗”。以古体`律诗见长,风格多样,而以沉郁为主。有《杜工部诗集》。《春日忆李白》描写了对友人李白的一缕相似,字里行间表达了对李白的感佩和爱慕之情。

五言八句律诗简称五律,组成四联,依次称为首联`颔联`颈联`尾莲(或承首`颈`腹`尾联),为了方便好辨认,我们就依次称为1`2`3`4联吧,中间的2`3联必须队仗(对偶)(请参考《诗词韵律简介》二—2对仗一节)。它的平仄格式是:

1 仄起,首句不入韵。

+ / - - / , - - / / (-) 。

= - - / (/), + / / - (-) 。

+ / - - / , - - / / (-) 。

= - - / (/), + / / - (-) 。

2 平起,首句不入韵。

= - - / / ,+ / / - (-) 。

+ / - - / ,- - / / (-) 。

= - - / / ,+ / / - (-) 。

+ / - - / ,- - / / (-) 。

3 仄起,首句入韵。

+ / / - (-) , - - / / (-) 。

= - - / / , + / / - (-) 。

+ / - - / , - - / / (-) 。

= - - / (/), + / / - (-) 。

4 平起,首句入韵。

= - / / (-) , + / / - (-) 。

+ / - - / , - - / / (-) 。

= - - / / , + / / - (-) 。

+ / - - / ,- - / / (-) 。

注释:

- :平 / :仄 () :押韵 + :仄可平 = :平可仄

五言律诗通常是首句不入韵,一般时仄起。

对仗往往起着律诗的画龙点睛之作用,而且也是对联格式的主要来源,所以初学朋友,一定要好好掌握。律诗对联的基本要求,可参考《楹联的基本要求》一帖,基本内容差不多,这里就不重复了。

这里简单介绍一下工对和宽对的概念,工对就是样样都符合对仗的要求,对的严丝合缝。宽对则可以避小就大,如名词这个大类中包括时间`地名`人物`动物方位等等小项,大项对了不管小项,这就是宽对。

另外律诗对仗还有一大忌讳。就是一定要避免

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篇12:古代文学论文写作的基础

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综上所述,要打好古代文学论文写作基础,阅读的量是相当大的。面对如此浩瀚的典籍,应如何阅读呢?方法有两个,一是细水长流,持之以恒。要有计划地选定一批书,在一定的期限内,每天拨出一部分时间,坚持不懈地读下去。二是处理好博览和精读的关系。阅读古代作品和有关文献资料,必须区别博览和精读,不能平均使用力量,重要的书籍要多下工夫仔细读、反复读,一般的可以采取浏览的方法略观大概。一个研究对象,总有少数几种重点书籍,如《诗经》,历代注释著作,少说也有几百种,但真正重要的、代表一个时期的研究水平和成果的,不过《毛诗正义》、《诗集传》、《诗毛氏传疏》、《诗三家义集疏》等几种,研究时必须把主要精力放在这些重点书上。博览也很重要,许多与研究的点有关的面上知识必须了解,就可以采取博览方式,博览的面要广些,但可以读得快一些、粗一些,中间遇到有与研究对象关系密切的问题则须仔细推敲。“精读”有助于增强读书能力,进而获得具体的学间知识,“博览”便于扩大知识面,为有时研究某一问题提供搜寻资料的线索。

读诗,在整个中国古代文学史上,诗具有至高无上的地位,可以毫不夸张地说,它是文学中的文学,正宗中的正宗,这不仅是因为诗歌源远流长,内容极为丰富,还因为其他文学体裁莫不受到诗歌的巨大影响,具有“诗化”的特征。如骄文这一体裁正是诗与非诗交叉的产物,处处表现出结构形式的诗化和表述语言的诗化,甚至连自然科学、社会科学和哲学著作里也有着诗歌抒情韵味的闪光。可以说形象性、情感性、音乐性广泛地体现在诗歌和一切非诗的作品中。强调读诗,还有一层意思,即强调吟诵。这是因为搞古代文学研究一定要有对诗歌的感悟能力。文学文本的解读不同子科学文本.相当大的程度要靠感悟。在诗歌研究方法中,理论、视角都是第二义的,第一义是感悟,有感悟,尤其是有个性化的感悟,不论从任何视角切人,都能有所创获,而没有感悟,视角、理论都是死的。感悟能力从何而来,一靠来自天分的灵性,部分则要靠吟诵与背诵。吟诵是古典诗歌研究的第一步,没有吟诵的工夫就进人不了古诗研究的殿堂,在吟诵间所获得的,超乎文字之外的独特感觉,是个性化研究的前提。

总而言之,为了加强自己文学艺术的修养,培养和提高研究古代文学和写作古代文学论文的能力,读书,多读书,用正确的方法有计划地读书,是为无数人的实践证明了的行之有效的途径。

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篇13:关于新闻写作基础知识:技巧与范例

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一、通讯的种类:一般分为“人物通讯、事件通讯、工作通讯、风貌通讯”

二、通讯的特点

通讯是一种详细、深入的报道,也是一种具有多种表现方法的新闻媒体,通讯报道生动形象、具有感染力。

三、人物通讯:是以报道人物为主要内容的通讯。

其基本要求和方法有以下几点:要体现当今的时代特征;要写出人物的特点;要用人物的行为表现人物。一般有两种写法,一是对人物一生或是某个阶段、某一个方面,作比较全面的报道;还有就是不对人物作全面的报道,而是抓住某个特定的情景,简单几笔,把人物的精神、特点写出来,或是作一个侧面报道。

四、事件通讯:它是以重大的或寻常的事件为报道的通讯类型。是记述新近发生的,受到人们普遍关注的事件

1、其基本要求和方法有以下几点:叙事要有明确的目的性;事件情节要交代清楚名了,线索要清晰;叙事要生动,灵活运用多种表现手法,突出重点,有详有略;在叙事中要选好人物,写人物时注意精练、生动形象。

2、通讯的语言特点和细节描写:通讯作为一种新闻媒体,语言要求准确严谨,简明扼要,鲜明生动,具体真切,通俗易懂;多运用琅琅上口的群众语言写通讯,要有浓郁的感情色彩。

五、新闻写作中应注意的几个问题

1、初学写作可以“描红模子”,从实践出发,边学习边实践,模仿着别的去学。

2、写新闻要有由头,最主要特点就是新,发生的事件离发表的时间越近越好。

3、多写短新闻,可以扩大版面的信息量,是各家报纸都特别提倡的。

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篇14:读后感的写作基础知识

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一、读后感的概念

读后感的概念有两重含义:一是真实的、不受任何约束的读后感,二是一种作文的体裁,考试时要接受各种条件的约束。下面这篇读后感,就接近于第一种读后感。写这种读后感,主要是给自己看的,一定要真实,有什么感想(当然感想应当有意义,值得一写)就写什么感想,与心得笔记不同,它要展开来写,尽量像一篇文章,尽量写得生动、实在、深刻。一般应当写清楚读了什么,有什么感想,联想到了什么,对自己有什么作用等。它不追求文体、格式框框,写起来也可长可短。

二、读后感的写法

写读后感最重要的一点是要读出所读书籍或者文章的“眼睛”,它是你展开来写的基础、中心和出发点,这个问题我们已经在上一讲里说过了,这里就不多讲了。其次,写读后感,有它一定的规矩,有的书上把它归纳为“引、议、联、结”,四个字,想公式一样。对于这些规矩我们不可以不学,考试时只要内容有创意,套用这种公式未尝不可;但我们也不要受其所限,写成千篇一律的“八股文”,也可尝试在结构上有自己的创意,有自己的个性。但不管怎样,读后感也离不开“读”——对原文的引述、概括、评价等等,离不开“感”——自己的感想。只要把这两个字表达好了,就是好的读后感。

三、写读后感的基本技巧

在读过一篇文章或一本书之后,把获得的感受、体会以及受到的教育、启迪等写下来,写成的文章就叫“读后感”。

读后感的基本思路

(1)简述原文有关内容。如所读书、文的篇名、作者、写作年代,以及原书或原文的内容概要。写这部分内容是为了交代感想从何而来,并为后文的议论作好铺垫。这部分一定要突出一个“简”字,决不能大段大段地叙述所读书、文的具体内容,而是要简述与感想有直接关系的部分,略去与感想无关的东西。

(2)亮明基本观点。选择感受最深的一点,用一个简洁的句子明确表述出来。这样的句子可称为“观点句”。这个观点句表述的,就是这篇文章的中心论点。“观点句”在文中的位置是可以灵活的,可以在篇首,也可以在篇末或篇中。初学写作的同学,最好采用开门见山的方法,把观点写在篇首。

(3)围绕基本观点摆事实讲道理。这部分就是议论文的本论部分,是对基本观点(即中心论点)的阐述,通过摆事实讲道理证明观点的正确性,使论点更加突出、更有说服力。这个过程应注意的是,所摆事实、所讲道理都必须紧紧围绕基本观点,为基本观点服务。

(4)围绕基本观点联系实际。一篇好的读后感应当有时代气息,有真情实感。要做到这一点,必须善于联系实际。这“实际”可以是个人的思想、言行、经历,也可以是某种社会现象。联系实际时也应当注意紧紧围绕基本观点,为观点服务,而不能盲目联系、前后脱节。

以上四点是写读后感的基本思路,但是这思路不是一成不变的,要善于灵活掌握。比如,“简述原文”一般在“亮明观点”前,但二者先后次序互换也是可以的。再者,如果在第三个步骤摆事实讲道理时所摆的事实就是社会现象或个人经历,就不必再写第四个部分了。

四、写读后感应注意的问题

第一是要重视“读”

在“读”与“感”的关系中,“读”是“感”的前提、基础;“感”是“读”的延伸或者说结果。必须先“读”而后“感”,不“读”则无“感”。因此,要写读后感首先要读懂原文,要准确把握原文的基本内容,正确理解原文的中心思想和关键语句的含义,深入体会作者的写作目的和文中表达的思想感情。

第二是要准确选择感受点

读完一本书或一篇文章,会有许多感想和体会;对同样一本书或一篇文章,不同的人从不同的角度思考问题,更是会产生不同的看法、受到不同的启迪。以大家熟知的“滥竽充数”成语故事为例,从讽刺南郭先生的角度去思考,可以领悟到没有真本领蒙混过日子的人早晚要“露馅”,认识到掌握真才实学的重要性;若是考虑在齐宣王时南郭先生能混下去的原因,就可以想到领导者要有实事求是的领导作风,不能搞华而不实,否则会给混水摸鱼的人留下空子可钻;再要从管理体制的角度去思考,就可进一步认识到齐宣王的“大锅饭”缺少必要的考评机制,为南郭先生一类的人提供了饱食终日混日子的客观条件,从而联想到改革开放以来,打破“铁饭碗”,废除大锅饭的必要性。

一篇读后感,不能写出诸多的感想或体会,这就要加以选择。作为初学者,就要选择自己感受最深又觉得有话可说的一点来写。要注意把握分析问题的角度,注意联系自己的实际情况,从众多的头绪中选择最恰当的感受点,作为全文议论的中心。

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篇15:说明文作文:阅读是写作的基础

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写好作文不是一件一蹴而就的事情。现在市场上有一些快速作文、作文速成法之类的指导书,当然是针对如今学生急于写好作文的心理,实际上这些说法都是不科学的。就算是天才,也需要在生活中有了阅历才能产生感悟,进而写出文章。一朝一夕就掌握写作文、写好作文的本领,简直就是天方夜谭。写好作文是靠真功夫的,真功夫怎么来?这就要在平时打好基础了。

阅读自然是必不可少的环节。写作是从阅读开始的,我们上语文课,学习别人的文章,就是一种阅读。当然,这种阅读是有限的,所以课外还应花一定的时间看些有益的书。那么,阅读读什么?怎么读?首先要明白,阅读是一种了解知识、了解他人的手段。别人的书就是他自己的体验与体悟,表达了对生活、人生或某事物的看法,这可能引起你的共鸣,也可能遭到你的反对,但不论是哪一种,对于阅读而言,这种情感的参与本身就是一次思维的锻炼,别人的书也可能是介绍某种或某些知识,那么你可以从中学到许多曾经不知道的东西,不是于无形中长了见识么?写起作文自然是得心应手。要知道,写文章并不仅仅需要语文知识呢,同学们应该清楚文史哲是不分家的,而且文与理工科都是有关联的,知识多了不压人。别人的文字也可能写得很美,你从中会受到启发:如何遣词造句、表情达意,如何构思,如何开头、结尾,这些积累起来不都是经验吗?别人的经历也许会教育你怎样做人,怎样面对困难,怎样与人相处,这些也有可能引发你的感悟,由此而生出写作的念头,不更是一举多得吗?阅读的好处同学们容易明白,但是坚持就不容易了,有必要提醒同学们,读书是要持之以恒的,同时要分门别类,有的精读,有的略读。最好是做读书笔记。

值得一提的是,读书要有怀疑精神,不能"尽信书",所谓的权威与名家他们也有不够好的地方,不要轻易为他人的观点所左右,读书的目的是要形成个人的观点,这才有创造性。

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篇16:2024事业单位论文写作基础知识

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事业单位考试大纲中明确指出,需要考察考查应试人员对学术论文相关知识的了解与实际运用能力。在以往的事业单位考试中,更多的是考察公文写作的相关知识,论文写作考察的很少,且相关的资料也比较少见。小编在此为各位考生简要分析论文写作的相关考点,帮助各位考生更好的复习备考。

首先,论文具有几下几项特征:

①科学性,即选题科学,研究方案合理;数据准确无误;结果与讨论的数据依据充分,具说服力,不出现无数据和现象支持的主观臆断的结果和结论。

②创新性即新颖性;即有别于他人(它文)的本质特征;刻意阐明创新点;应用研究着重实验设备、测试分析技术、工艺方法等方面的更新或改进;基础研究着重理论上的新见解,计算方法的另辟新径;

③学术性,即透过对所研究的客体外象的观测,分析探讨其内在本质,将感性认识进行理论上的深化;切忌将一连串现象无分析归纳的无序堆砌,而将论文写成实验报告或工作总结。

④真实性,即错误、虚假、失实将导致论文科学性和学术性的丧失,甚至可能涉嫌有剽窃行为;不凭主观臆断和好恶随意舍取数据和素材 ,引证他人成果必须给出出处,但只提取与文章密切相关的重要信息用以引证。

⑤标准化和规范化,即书写格式的标准化和规范化,是要按规定的格式书写,即符合信息传递与交流、科技文献管理、以及电子化、数字化等方面的要求。

论文写作的相关依据主要来自国家标准局的文件《科学技术报告、学位论文和学术论文的编写格式》。按照该格式,论文主要分为主体部分和前置部分。

1.前置部分。主要包括①封面——报告、论文的外表面,提供应有的信息,并起保护作用;②封二——可标注送发方式,包括免费赠送或价购,以及送发单位和个人;版权规定;其他应注明事项;③题名页——对报告、论文进行著录的依据;④分类号——中图分类号是按照《中国图书馆分类法》;⑤题目(可加副标题)——以最恰当、最简明的词语反映报告、论文中最重要的特定内容的逻辑组合;⑥署名——姓名、工作单位;⑦摘要——报告、论文的内容不加注释和评论的简短陈述,是独立的短文,概括文章主要信息。⑧关键词——为了文献标引工作从报告、论文中选取出来用以表示全文主题内容信息款目的单词或术语。⑨目次页——长篇报告、论文可以有目次页,短文无需目次页;⑩插图和附表清单——报告、论文中如图表较多,可以分别列出清单置于目次页之后。

2.主体部分。主要包括①引言——(绪论/导论/引论)简短介绍研究的目的、意义、方法、范围、背景等;②正文——实事求是、合乎逻辑、结构严谨、层次分明、论证充分、表达规范、行文流畅;③结论——文章的研究成果,准确、完整、明确、精炼;④致谢——可以在正文后对进行方面致谢;⑤引文——所引用的他人的研究成果(观点、理论、数据等);⑥注释——注明引文的出处;⑦参考文献——写作中所参考、借鉴的重要文章和著作(作者、文章标题,期刊/著作名、出版社、年份、页码等详细情况);⑧附录——作为报告、论文主体的补充项日,并不是必需的。

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篇17:写作基础:把叙述与描写结合起来

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导语:在写记叙文时,如果要使文字内容更具体,不空泛,一定要把叙述描写结合起来。那么如何才能结合好呢?下面我们来详细看看。

我们首先需要了解一下这两者的基本概念和作用。叙述和描写。是作文中两种不同的表现方式。我们这里说的叙述是指把人的经历行为或事件的发生、发展变化表述出来的一种表达方式,它常常把分散的场景,片断的故事和人物的身世,地位,经历,事迹等贯穿起来。它要求做到头绪清楚,脉络分明,有条有理,重点突出。

在记事、写人、状物的文章中,叙述是不可少的,尤其是在介绍人或事物变化为主的文章中叙述的作用更大,甚至有的文章专以叙述为长。我们本讲选的优秀作文《男班长,女班长》就是一个很好的例子。文章中描写部分很少,介绍事件发展过程的叙述占了很大的篇幅,如开头对男女班长来自何方的介绍,女班长对男班长的观察,正副班长必须合作的现实,以及同学们的揶揄,思想的顾虑,同学开玩笑不断,“收到副班长纸条”,到结尾“男女班长仍然合作着处理班里的事务”。这篇文章用很短的篇幅,以叙述为主,把一波三折的事件按发展轨迹清晰有序地介绍出来。对发展过程虽是梗概地介绍,但文章的思想内涵却非常丰富,也可以说在写法上是比较巧妙的。

叙述在按事件发生发展、人物经历的时间来划分,可以有顺叙,倒叙、插叙、补叙等方式,我们在写文章时,可以根据表达的需要去选择叙述的方式。

描写是对人物,事物和环境所作的具体的描绘和摹写,描写是再现描写对象状态的一种表达方式。描写需要采用绘声绘色的办法,把事物的状貌、神采和动态,具体地、真切地饱含情意地勾画出来。写人要使其声可闻,其容可睹;写物要使之可见,可闻,可触,可感;写景要意境鲜明,使读者产生仿佛置身其间的幻觉。

在我们学过的课文中,传神的描写是很多的。如《天山景物记》中对天山深处的描写,“山色逐渐变得柔嫩,山形也变得柔和,很有一伸手就可以触摸到凝脂似的感觉。这里溪流缓慢,萦绕着每一个山脚,在轻轻荡漾着的溪流的两岸,满是高过马头的野花,红、黄、蓝、白、紫,五彩缤纷,像绵延的织锦那么华丽,象天边的彩霞那么耀眼,像高空的长虹那么绚烂。”这段描写抓住山色、溪流、野花这三种最能表现天山特点的事物,重彩浓墨,绘声绘色地把天山美景表现出来。既能使读者如身临其境,也增添了作品的文采。我们在作文时,如果能恰当地运用描写来表现形象,借以表达某种强烈的思想感情。文章的感染力就一定能有所增强。

叙述和描写在记叙性的文字中都是不可缺少的表现方式。叙述着重于一般情况过程的交待,描写则着重形象的描摹和刻画;如果说叙述是纵的绵延,那么描写便是横的扩展。一篇文字若无叙述,就会显得杂乱无章;没有描写,则会干瘪枯燥,毫无生气可言。

实际上,成功的作品中,常常是叙述与描写交错在一起的。我们所选优秀作文,《奶奶与花》就是叙述与描写交融在一起的,近似于一线串珠式的一篇记叙文。

文中以时间为序,先从小时候家门前有一个很大的“花园”叙述开始,然后再描写人物行为语言、花的形态、气味。从而表现我“深深地爱上花”的过程。接着叙述自己病中见到花的情景,描写花的形态,写出自己感受到“花能给人一种强盛的生命力”。接着是叙述“随着年龄的增长,这种认识愈来愈深”又通过对“死不了”“仙人球”的描写,感悟出“花,让我感到一种无尽的生命力,一种明亮的期望”。第五自然段叙述自己养花的过程。这里又运用描写的方式,描绘出花园的美丽,各种花的特点,表现出花可以陶冶情操的作用。这段描写是比较突出的,描写了花的各种色彩,各种形态,用排比、比喻的手法绘色绘形,有丰富的想象力。为了把文章写得曲折有致,第七段、第八段叙述搬进高层楼房前、后我与奶奶对花的珍爱,对小花园的怀念,这里又有对人物的心理、动作的描写,为“小花园”遭到破坏,我和奶奶沉痛心情做了铺垫。

这篇文章用叙述的方式。介绍了事件发展曲折过程,使文章头绪清楚,脉络分明,重点环节突出。这是文章的一条线。在每个重要环节上,作者都生动形象地描绘了人物的行为、场景、物态,内容丰满。叙述和描写有机地结合在一起,深刻地表达了文章的主题思想,增强文章的感染力。

在作文时,恰当地运用叙述与描写,做到有机结合,要注意以下几点。

一、要熟练掌握叙述与描写的功能,注意二者之间互相依存、互相交通的关系。根据作文内容和思想表达的需要,交错运用。

二、在描写范围比较大、内容比较丰富的地域景物或事物状貌时,(例如《天山景物记》等一些游记式的文章)需要有一条贯穿始终的线索,有一个逐步转移、推进的过程,那么这个线索或过程就要依靠叙述来表现。如我们常讲的“移步换景”的写法,其中对“移步”的交代,往往需要叙述。用时间推移来描写事物或人物的发展变化时,对每个阶段的交代,一般也是要运用叙述来完成的。在这种情况下描写的条理性要依靠叙述来体现。

三、在写故事情节比较强文章时,人物的语言,行动往往是构成情节的重要因素、情节又要依靠叙述来展开,这就需要描写人物语言行动与铺叙故事情节同时进行,也就是说要把叙述故事融化在描写中,或把描写融化在叙述情节中。我们仔细玩味一下作文《奶奶与花》,其中有些地方就是把描写与叙述这样融合在一起的。

我们就应当多选读一些优秀作文或名家的文章,刻意体味一下的相依关系,学习二者的结合形式。使自己的作文能更加条理清晰,情节曲折跌宕,内容丰富有致,更具有感染力。

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篇18:基础写作的内容分为8类

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《语文写作》为“中文知识丛书”之一,结合最新国家大中学语文考试考纲进行全部知识分类归纳,应对语文考试,涵盖语文写作全部知识,介绍了语文考试中出现的和可能出现的各种文体写作知识、方法和技巧。主要内容包括:作文基础,作文材料,表达方式,作文技巧,作文手法,文章写作,记叙文、议论文和说明文写作,改写作文,扩写与缩写作文,材料作文,看图作文,公文、书信、财经商务、事务、礼仪应用文等。

建议信写作

一、基础写作的内容分类

1.应用文(欢迎词,建议信,投诉信,应聘信,日记,通知,便条,遗失招领启事,海报)

2. 人物写照

3. 地方介绍

4. 调查报告(2007广东卷:谁是你的偶像)

5. 事物介绍(2008 广东卷:奥运比赛项目射击)

6. 新闻采访(2009 近视问题;2010政府禁烟)

7. 看图写作(社会现象或寓言、成语故事)

8. 图表说明(表格,柱状图,曲线图,扇形图

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篇19:新闻通讯的写作基础

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通讯是报社、广播电台广泛采用的体裁之一,是一种详尽的报道客观事物及其变动的新闻体裁,充分表现新闻事实的延展性报道。下面是新闻通讯的写作基础,一起来了解下吧:

通讯报道必须是真实的,报道对象应该具有必要的思想性和典型意义。

特点:叙事的形象性;内容的具象性,内容更加丰厚;表达方式的多样性。

通讯以严格的真实性与文学相区别。通讯只能是选择典型,而不能是塑造典型;只能挖掘故事情节,而不能虚构故事情节。

调查报告与通讯的区别:调查报告不注重展开生活的画面,一般是概述式的,不予充分展开调查报告中的例子。

与一般的传记、回忆录相比,通讯突出时效性的特点,反应最新的情况进展。

按报道内容分为人物通讯、事件通讯、风貌通讯等。

按写作形式分为一般通讯、小故事、特写等。

复合型的写作样式有集纳通讯和深度报道等。

人物通讯不一定是名人,要突出人物的新闻价值性。取材上可以写“全人全貌”,也可截取片段着重写作。

事件通讯可以具体而形象地写出一件事的来龙去脉,也可以压缩成概括性的叙述,还可以把新闻事件中的某个片段加以突出的描绘。关键是写好事件本身的新闻意义以及作者对于事件的认识和处理。

工作通讯的写作要从工作实际出发,了解所存在的问题和特点,进行政策上和思想上的引导,最终目的在于指导和推进工作。一般是某项工作如何开展、打开局面的情况;或是取得的新成绩、新经验;或是回答实际工作总所关心和迫切需要解决的问题。

风貌通讯是反映现实生活中的变化,使受众增长知识,有时用以沟通情况,开阔眼界。风貌通讯经常运用见闻、游记、随笔等形式。取材广泛、写法灵活,展现现实的生活画面。

通讯按表现形式分为:

一般记事通讯,报纸上多数通讯属于一般记事通讯,有故事情节,有比较完整的过程,材料比较具体、形象,能体现出通讯所具有的特点。

访问记,由记者出面登场,以采访活动的过程为主要线索结构和组织材料。写作时有问有答,现场感强,可以合理的加入背景材料,使通讯具有一定的深度。专访是访问记的一种形式,但是访问面不宜太宽泛。

特写,特写注重再现生活中的某个特定的画面,通过突出局部描绘事件的某些片段,增加传播力。

通讯写作的基本表达手法及其特点

表达手法:叙述、描写、议论、抒情

叙述的表达方法有:

从头到尾或由浅入深的叙述方法;

头足倒置或者中心开花的叙述方法,有意识的把事情的结果或者精彩片段放到前面叙述;

中断过程穿插材料的叙述方法。

夹叙夹议的叙述方法。

描写是通讯非常重要的一种表达方式。可以分为人物、场景和细节描写。

人物描写可以写人物外貌,给人生动直观的形象。还可以通过写人物的语言、动作等侧面烘托。写心理,通讯的人物心理描写依然要坚持客观真实的基础。

场景描写可以帮助受众了解事件的性质、状况和意义,加深读者印象。

细节描写具有很强烈的冲击感,对于通讯写作十分重要。

议论和抒情:

1、开头之处作诱导;

2、关节之处作渲染;

3、衔接之处作粘合;

4、结尾之处作抒发。作用在于揭示本质、深化主题;使事实形象生辉;借助议论阐明事物之间的内部联系;激发读者的感想。

叙述的直观性:开门见山,直奔主要新闻事实;上下连接,过渡照应;简要穿插,对比衬托。

描写的直观性:记者亲眼所见,如实写来;事后采访,重现场景;记者出场,进入事件,成为其中的一个“角色”。有时候由于记者采访调查的艺术,还可以推进新闻事件的发展,扩大新闻线索,挖掘蕴藏其中的内涵。

寄情理于人:以深含感情的语言,深含见解的语言去描写人物,把对人物的情感和认识凝聚笔端。

寄情理于事:作者在叙述事件的过程中,情不自禁地在字里行间流露出自己对事件的认识和感情。

提炼通讯主题的一般方法

通讯的主题是在采访、写作的过程中逐步形成的,一般情况下是先有素材,后有题材,再有主题。

采访中收集到的大量的原始材料,尚未经过整理、加工的东西叫做素材。

题材是记者根据一定的报道思想,根据自己对生活、对事实的理解和判断,从大量素材中选择、提炼、加工成的写作材料。

主题是经过记者头脑的深思熟虑和判断分析,抓住了本质核心,形成一个明确的思想。所以通讯的主题是从实践中来,是决定选材、结构、表现形式等一系列问题的依据,是通讯的灵魂。所以,通讯要选政治上重要的、为大众所关注的、涉及最迫切的问题。

要求:集中、新鲜、深刻。

通讯的主题要集中一点,突出一点,宣传一个思想,不要企图在一篇通讯中解决很多的问题。

通讯的几种主要结构

纵式结构,按事情发生、发展的过程安排,容易为文化水平不高的受众所理解和接受,具有广泛的群众性。由浅入深法一般用于政论性、问题性通讯的写作,重在以思想启迪人。

横式的结构有时空变换法和并列铺排法。根据主题思想,把单独的几个故事或一件事的几个侧面材料,组成一篇通讯。

通讯的开头:

开头要新鲜生动,不能泛泛而谈,格调要注意与整篇文章相一致。用重要情节作开头;以尖锐的矛盾作开头;以鲜明的对比作开头;用精辟的议论作开头;以突然的转折作为开头;用优美的故事作开头;用恰当的引语作开头,例如“做人要像人,但是做官不能像官”这样的语句。

通讯的结尾:

起到画龙点睛的作用,升华主题。

通讯的写作要点

通讯对象的选定要慎重,挖掘角度要新颖。形象地写人写事。

如何写好通讯—以人物通讯为例

角度:写人物富有戏剧性的遭遇情节,人是新闻的主体,是新闻要素中最活跃的因素,把人写活了,新闻事实就会有立体感。

人物通讯的定义:一般是指以通讯的形式报道具有新闻价值的人物,反映其行为、事迹和生活,再现其精神境界、人生轨迹和生存状态,从而达到教育启迪或监督批判、警示社会的目的的通讯。

人物通讯采写的共通性特征

现实针对性强:善于发现和表现最能体现时代精神、对人们有较大激励和鼓舞作用的典型人物。

事迹可信度高:通过深入采访获得真实的材料,经过对比鉴别以后应用。

故事情节生动;报道人情味浓。

人物通讯采写方法的个性化差异

提炼的主题不同,主题是记者对新闻材料提炼出的一种思想见解,是对材料所蕴含的新闻价值的挖掘。但是同一题材可能产生多个主题,记者可以从不同角度观察。

取材的路径不同,激烈的新闻竞争环境下,记者会突出个性差异,通过深入采访挖掘到与别的媒体不同的素材。

报道的主题决定材料的选择,确定了什么样的主题,然后再去挖掘相关的素材。谁占有第一手材料谁就能写出独家的报道来。

人物通讯最常见的结构

纵式写作:传记特色,通过人物的典型生活历程展示人物形象的历史轨迹。

横式写作:空间转换结构,以与人物相关联的事件组织、安排材料来表现人物的结构样式。

报道的形式不同,取决于报纸的出版周期、报纸定位性质和媒体个性风格等因素影响。

通讯主题的提炼和深化

主题是决定人物通讯成功与否的第一要素。主题的正确是指主题要有正确的舆论导向,鲜明是指要明确、清晰,深刻是作品要放映人物的特点和时代风貌。

通讯主题的提炼:

1、从现象看到本质,用揭示点提炼。“感觉到了的东西,我们不能立刻理解他,只有理解了的东西,才能更深刻的感觉他”。

2、微观到宏观,沟通点的提炼,努力找出两者之间的共性与差别。

3、从事实与时代的契合点上提炼,通讯报道影响社会,推动社会发展的时代感,要尽可能的同时代相联系起来。

通讯主题的深化:主动的作者用锐利的思想钻入题材内部,政府题材,在题材的表层意义上再升腾起理智的灵光,升华其思想意蕴。

通讯主题深化的方法:

1、掬浪讨源法,寻找问题本质的原因。

2、引申勾连法,作者应该进一步思考,讲题材包含的本质加以发挥,同其他现象相联系。

3、层层剥笋法,一层层的深度挖掘内涵。

4、取类归纳法,大量的材料让事物的把握变得有难度时进行分类归纳。

5、镜照对比法,通过同其他事物的对比寻找。

总结,通讯的主题提炼和深化要以大量的采访材料为依据。

角度:反映记者思维、切入点和眼光。

人物通讯如何出彩:

细节描写可以使人物形象更加丰满,语言是文章的血肉,也是人物个性和精神充分流露的渠道。对氛围进行精心描写,可以触发读者的情感。

[新闻通讯的写作基础

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篇20:高中语文话题作文的写作基础

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如何写好高中作文,对于学生作文的写作基础也要好好的训练,话题作文的基本要求:话题作文还是要审题,所写内容必须在话题范围之内。“立意自 定”,关键要读懂话题关键词的意旨,若给出导语提示,还应划出导语中包含归结的关键语词。一般初学者,首先要注意让这些关键词贯穿在自己作文的始终,统帅 自己的文意。以下是为大家分享的高中语文话题作文的写作基础,供大家参考借鉴,欢迎浏览!

如何写好高中作文,对于学生作文的写作基础也要好好的训练,实际效果又发现学生完全没有一般思想认识的基础,真正可见现在所谓合格教育的成效,和高中教学要求的“架空作业”。

一、文章形式的革命——夹叙夹议

尽快脱离初中只重记叙,笼统归结的写法。高中的作文记叙只向最高水平开一条缝,你得复杂记叙,融情思与哲理于一炉,有最动人的细节和最精美的表达,巧妙蕴 含深刻的思辨和无穷的回味,这不是一般人能做到的,更不是学不会议论抒情的同学的避难所。所以,比自己多练议论,远比固守初中记叙的窠臼要有前途。高中的 记叙必须简约,只提炼能说明自己观点的内核,而尽量舍弃叙述的完整过程与细节。叙,惜墨如金;而起始学写议,应力求具体多点分析阐述。

二、文章立意的升华——深入浅出

叙完笼统归结是初中模式作文的又一通病,常常文章的结尾具有宽泛的普适性,而缺乏对文章应有之义作具体针对性的挖掘阐发,常常文章的“穿鞋戴帽”大到可以 套在无数篇文章上,却没什么真正的思考。高中作文倘使还用夹叙夹议,也要对叙的材料反复推敲,找出几例可以统一在一个观点里的材料,就材料的不同侧面来评 析议论,最后上升归结出恰当切题、言之有物的中心。

三、文章表达的提高——点睛生花

好的文笔追求更高效率、更多意蕴。描述中就渗透情思与评析,这是较高水平的表达。一般的叙议分段,也应注意所叙材料紧贴自己的议论,议论应采取逐层推进, 前后分界,避免相互缠绕。但又必须前后连贯,形成一个整体。在文章中一定写好精心组织的关键议论,努力使文章多处呈现运用一定修辞的文采。

话题作文训练举隅

话题作文的基本要求:话题作文还是要审题,所写内容必须在话题范围之内。“立意自定”,关键要读懂话题关键词的意旨,若给出导语提示,还应划出导语中包含归结的关键语词。一般初学者,首先要注意让这些关键词贯穿在自己作文的始终,统帅自己的文意。

规定“题目自拟”,一定不要用话题作标题。1、标题范围尽量要小,不要太大太泛;要合理出新,不落俗套。2、标题不能过长,可以采用副标题的方式对主标题加以限制。3、标题要含蓄,把思维蕴涵于形象的标题之中。

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