英语作文的写作技巧有哪些精选20篇

由于话题作文内容开放，写作空间宽，灵活性大，能充分张扬学生的个性，展示学生的写作特长，近年来，无论是高考还是中考，话题作文已越来越普及，越来越受出题者和应试者的青睐。那么，初三学生如何在中考中使话题作文得高分呢?不可忽视以下几点：

一、一个好的写作心态。

有些考生作文时惟恐写不完，略作思考便慌忙提笔，一挥而就，这样的作文难以做到文质兼美。实践证明：初中生在40分钟内完成600字的文章是没有问题的。面对话题，成功的心态便是自信。镇定自如，才会激情投入，激活思维，展示自己的最佳水平。

二、一个清爽的卷面。

这是考生作文给阅卷者的第一感觉。中考阅卷时间紧，任务重，适值酷暑，潦草的卷面难以赢得评卷者的好感。书写规范，文面整洁，本身就是对阅卷者的尊重。为此，考生既要写快，又要写好。即使字体不十分美观，也要尽最大的努力，做到字体匀称，字不能太小，也不能占满全格，更不能出格。同时，标点符号的使用要规范、正确，不能全文只有两个标点符号(即一个逗号加一个句号)。

三、一个明确的中心。

“文以载道”。考生应从所给的材料中，提炼出正确、新颖、深刻的观点，让此观点统摄全文。在文中，文章的中心要明确而突出，表现出正面、积极向上、有教育意义的主题。不应表现消极情绪，比如：以尽情玩耍为欢乐;以学校、家长对学生的学习质量要求高为苦恼等等。其次内容要有主次，要突出重点。

四、一个精彩的题目。

“题好一半文”。话题作文既然允许自拟题目，考生就不应放弃展示自己写作功力的机会。题目角度宁小勿大，语言努力做到凝练、含蓄、优美，力求让阅卷者“一见钟情”。

1、用修辞方法拟题，如以“假日”为话题，可用比喻拟题，拟为《假日---爱的桥梁》，将桥梁比喻成爱的桥梁，在父母离婚后，“我”被判给爸爸，于是利用假日与妈妈构筑了一条情感的纽带。又如以“感受生活”为话题，可拟为《苦咖啡》，这便运用了双关，既实指咖啡，又暗指生活，通过叙述自己在校独自锻炼的苦，折射出其中的甜。

2、可移用诗词名句、歌词等来拟题目，如以“灯”为话题，可拟为《一晌贪欢》，引用了李煜的词《浪淘沙》中的“不知梦里身是客，一晌贪欢”，写“我”是李煜书桌上的油灯，突出了悲凉、伤感之情。以“我”为话题，可用《真我风采》、《最近比较烦》、《我想唱歌可不敢唱》……

3、可以用扩展法，就是在话题的前或后加上适当而生动的词语，从而拟出适合自己写的题目，这样在规定的范围内，使话题变小，更有针对性。如以“掌声”为话题，拟为《她的掌声，给我一个天堂》;以“变”为话题，拟为《风中不变的承诺》。此外，还有可以反弹琵琶，题目体现新颖创新;设置悬念，让题目引人入胜等等。

五、一个亮丽的开头。

古人行文讲究“凤头”，也就是说文章的开头要写得精彩。可采用的方式有：开门见山，直接切题;写景状物，渲染气氛;设置悬念，引出下文;抒情议论，奠定感情基调等等。切忌开头洋洋洒洒几百字后，仍不见内容与话题有关。

六、一个新颖的结构形式。

考场作文，形式和内容同等重要。一个匠心独具的形式，也会让阅卷者眼睛一亮，对眼前的作文增添几分好感，无形中就给作文打了高分。比如：：

1、可以采用题记，揭示文章的主旨。以“相信自己”为话题，题记定为“不要抱怨自己的命运，我们都是上帝的宠儿;不要畏惧山外的山，人外的人。相信自己：你就是山外之山，人外之人”(选自《写给昨日自卑的我》)。又如以“自然”为话题，题记定为“我愿做只井底之蛙，那儿清凉又舒爽，那儿隐蔽又安全。来，来，来，请跟我来，跳到井底，远离人类”(选自《一只井底蛙的劝世格言》)。

2、可以使用小标题，使内容简洁醒目。比如《种太阳》一文用了三个小标题：“童年”、“我的大学”、“在人间”，巧妙地运用高尔基的小说三部曲的名字，很有层次感，使文章新颖独特。再如《江雪》一文中既有题记，又有小标题，它的题记是“希望一切都只有因为是雪，因为它会很快地融化，但一切都只因为是雪吗?”四个小标题却又是《江雪》一诗的四句话。再如《成长中的酸甜苦辣》一文分四个小标题：1酸如醋酸的幼年;2甜如蜜糖的童年;3苦如黄莲的花季;4辣如辣椒的雨季。

3、可以抒写书信，以情动人;还可以镜头回放，再现生活;还可以采用小说、童话、寓言等等。如《爱无止境》以日记体的形式，用“妈妈的日记”、“女儿的日记”的形式，从不同角度写情、写爱、写人生，新颖活泼，富有创意。

形式创新，贵在“得体”。考生要选用自己最娴熟的一种形式，切不可滥用，否则文不对体，会弄巧成拙的。

此外，在结构形式的安排上，还要注意段落的安排，尽量将文章的段落分细些，张弛有致，灵活多变，从而避免“三段文”。

七、一个优美的片断。

集中笔力，写好一个片断，向阅卷者展示自己的的文学功底。写记叙文的片断，可运用多种描写手法，如景物烘托，白描、语言、动作等手法，同时灵活运用修辞方法;写议论文片断，可用典型的论证方法层层论证，环环相扣;写散文片断，可旁征博引，让思维纵横驰骋，使自己个性得到淋漓尽致的发挥。这样就使文章增添了文采，获得阅卷者的首肯，给打了高分。比如：

感动好像暖暖的春风，“二月春风似剪刀”，给大地带来春的消息，让世界充满生机和活力。

感动仿佛隐隐的春雷，驱散了人们心中的阴霾，使沉睡者苏醒，使懒散者振奋。

感动犹如沥沥的春雨，滋润了干涸的心田，“好雨知时节，润物细无声”。

这是《感动》一文中的语句，比喻恰当、贴切，再加上诗句的引用、排比的形式更增添了文句的韵味。当然，作文中还可引用歌词、名句、警句、歇后语等。

八、一个完美的结尾。

古人写文章讲究“凤头、猪肚、豹尾”。所谓“豹尾”，是指文章结尾要有力，耐人寻味。这样会给阅卷者留下最好的印象。简便易行的结尾有以下几种：照应开头，凸现主题;总结全文，画龙点睛;含蓄蕴藉，耐人寻味等等。一个漂亮精彩的结尾能使中考作文锦上添花，大为增色，给评了高分。

要写出一篇好文章，必须具备多方面的因素，以下是小编整理的关于小学作文的写作技巧，欢迎阅读参考。

一、提高认识事物和表达事物的能力。

我国著名教育家叶圣陶先生指出：写任何东西决 定于认识和经验，有什么样的认识和经验，才能写出什么样的东西来。反之，没有表达认识的能力，同样也写不出好作文。

二、把认识结构作为作文的核心。

包括学习知识，观察积累，记忆储存，训练思维，丰富 想象，培养情感，锻炼意志；从说到写，推敲修改，多读勤写。

三、树立大作文观，听、说、读、写有机结合。

一要注重审题；二要明确写作目的，立意要新；三是选材要有根据；四要讲究谋篇技巧，安排好篇章结构；五要注意文章分段，事先列小标题，作文提纲；六要注重文章写法，因文用法；七要妙用语言，用思想调遣语言。

学会五种立意法：以事赞人，直抒胸臆，借物喻理，触景生情，托物言志。

四、作文大目标的逐年级分解。

一年级字词，二年级句子，三年级片断，四年级篇章，五年级综合，六年级提高。

五、实施五项训练。

根据认识是作文的核心这一原则，围绕这个发展学生心理机制的核心，扎扎实实地进行了五项训练：

（一）字词训练。

学习掌握大量字词。掌握运用字词的金钥匙：联系自己熟悉的事物； 联系自己生活实际；联系自己学会的语言及字词知识。

运用十引说的方法，把字词学习与说话训练相结合。十引说是：1、分析字形； 2、利用教具；3、凭图学词；4、组词扩词；5、选词填空；6、词语搭配；7、调整词序； 8、触景用词；9、词语分类；10、联词成句。

丰富了说话训练内容，使自己积累大量会说会用的字词，为写作文打下坚实基础。

（二）句子训练。

只要是一个句子，都包括两个方面：一是说的人、事、物、景， 二是说目的。

可有些教师指导学生说一句话时，没有很好凭借图画和事物，认真教学生观察、认识、分析、表达的方法，只是拿出一张图或一事物让学生说写一句话，学生不知道为什么要说写一句话，怎样说写一句话，说写一句什么句型、什么句式的话， 导致作文中语调单一、呆板、不活泼生动。

可以改让学生凭图、看物、对话、练习说 写一句时间、地点、人物、事件四要素完整的话，四种句型，九种句式的话。学生 才会在作文中运用不同句型、句式，表达不同的思想、感情、态度、目的。

（三）段的训练。

结合八种段式：以事物发展为序段，时间先后为序段，空间变换为序段，总述、分述结构段，因果段、转折段，递进段，并列段。

以此认识客观事物的发生、发展规律。不论哪种段式，都是记叙事物的发展和人们对事物的认识，即段的内容，段的中心。

它和一句话一样，也是对人、事、物、景的叙述，也是表达一 个意思。只不过是把一句话进一步说得更清楚、更深刻。

（四）篇章训练。

篇是由段组成的。通过对审题、立意、选材、谋篇、定法、用 语的知识与方法，通过记叙、描写、抒情、议论四种表达方法，文章开头与结尾、过渡 与呼应方法，各种文章体裁的知识与方法。学会写中心明确，意思完整，详略得当的记 叙文和应用文。

（五）生活现场训练。

采用生活现场训练，更好地体会从内容入手写作文。 通过各种作文教学活动，如确定中心讨论会、选材讨论会、作文会诊会、 小诸葛审题会、妙用词语比赛会，从活动中生动具体地学到作文知识与写作文 的方法。

另外，还可开展各种校内外活动，如跳绳、拔河、踢毽、球类、背书比赛，从而学会如何写比赛作文；开展校内外义务劳动，学会如何写劳动场面；举行诗歌朗诵、 讲演会，学会如何写会议场面及会议上的见闻；通过参观访问，浏览名胜古迹，学会如 何写参观访问记、游记。学习观察方法，留心周围的事物、事件，处处留心皆学问， 人情练达即文章。

通过现场生活作文，进一步认识到：生活是作文的沃土。从而学会 写真事、抒真情，陶冶真、善、美的情操，培养良好的文风。 实行互评互改，培养学生思维独立性和创造性。

学生作文写好后，组织在小组内讲评。先学习别人作文的优点，再用批评的眼光互相指出作文中的缺点，并指出改进意见。在此基础上重新再写，从而使学生每写一篇都有收获。

作状物作文能够培养和提高同学们观察事物、认识事物的能力，提高同学们的语言表达能力。下面小编为你介绍一下状物的作文写作技巧吧！

一、仔细观察，了解物体的外部特征

观察是作文的基础，要想写好状物作文，就必须留心观察。对于动物，我们不但要观察其外表，如大小、形状、颜色等，还要特别注意观察其静态和运动时的神情和姿态，了解其生活习性。对于植物，我们不仅要对其根、茎、叶、花等部分进行观察，还要懂得植物生命的周期性，了解其色彩、形状、大小等随四季变化而变化的特性。对于静物，我们不仅要观察其形状、大小、颜色、还要了解其构造、用途等。总之，观察是状物的第一步，只有仔细观察，作文时才能栩栩如生地再现物体的形象。

二、选取描写的具体内容，有序写作

状物作文必须按照一定的顺序写，这样才能让人读了以后，觉得层次清楚，对所描写的内容才能清楚地了解。由于描写的物体不同，因而写作顺序也不一样。一般来讲，写动物，往往按照先写其外表，后写其习性的顺序写作。写其外形时，可以按从头到尾、从体到肢的顺序有详有略地描述。写植物，可以按照根、茎、叶、花、果的顺序一步步观察描写。写静物，可以按照从整体到部分来描写。

当然，状物作文的描写顺序是多种多样的，可以按时间顺序写，按生长规律写，按由远及近或从外到内等不同方位顺序写。因此，我们在作文时要灵活运用。

三、抓住物体的个性特征

好的状物作文，应力求所写物体形象逼真，让人喜爱、如见其物之感。而要做到这一点，就要抓住物体的个性特征描绘。

“描虎不能像猫，画叶不能像花”。由于物体的类型不同，形态、习性各异，我们在描摹物体时，只有抓住它们与众不同的特征加以刻画，才能把物写真、写活。如松柏苍劲挺拔，柳树柔软多姿，小鸟雀跃在枝头歌唱，高粱笑红着脸在微风中招展……不同的物，各有特征。

四、融入感情，为文章的中心服务

一篇好的状物作文，不应只是为写物而写物，而应当通过对物的描述，表达其人格化的精神品质。在状物的同时，如果能“水到渠成”而又巧妙地表达出作者积极的、向上的、健康的情怀，对作文就能起到“托物言志”、画龙点睛的作用。“托物言志”、“借物抒情”，这是对状物作文的更高层次的要求。优秀的状物作文不仅能表达作者对物的外形之爱，而且能由表及里地表达出作者对物的实质之爱，让人读后从中受到感悟，得到教益。

一、教育类

● And gladly would learn , and gladly teach .( Chaucer , British pot

勤于学习的人才能乐意施教。(英国诗人, 乔叟)

●Better be unborn than untaught , for ignorance is the root of misfortune .(Plato , Ancient Greek philosopher)

与其不受教育,不如不生,因为无知是不幸的根源.(古希腊哲学家 柏拉图)

●Genius without education is like silver in the mine. (Benjamin Franklin , American president )

未受教育的天才，犹如矿中之银。 (美国总统 富兰克. B.)

●The roots of education are bitter , but the fruit is sweet .(Aristotle , Ancient Greek philosopher )

教育的根是苦的，但其果实是甜的。( 古希腊哲学家 亚里士多德)

二、知识类

●Activity is the only road to knowledge .(George Bernard Shaw , British

dramatist)

行动是通往知识的唯一道路。 (英国剧作家 肖伯纳. G.)

●A free man obtains knowledge from many sources besides books .(Thomas Jefferson ,

American president)

一个自由的人除了从书本上获取知识外，还可以从许多别的来源获得知识。(美国总统

杰斐逊 . T.)

●A great part to the information I have was acquired by looking up something and finding something else on the way .(Adams Franklin , American humorist )

我的大部分知识都是这样获得的：在寻找某个资料时意外的发现了另上的资料。(美国幽默作家

富兰克林. A.)

●If a man empties his purse into his head , no man can take it away from him , an investment in knowledge always pays the best interest .(Benjamin Franklin ,

American president )

倾已所有追求知识，没有人能夺走它;向知识投资，收益最佳。(美国总统

富兰克林. B.)

●Imagination is more important than knowledge .(Albert Einstein , American scientist )

想象力比知识更为重要。 (美国科学家 爱因斯坦. A. )

●Knowledge is power . (Francis Bacon , British philosopher )

知识就是力量。 (英国哲学家 培根. F.)

●The empty vessels make the greatest sound . (William Shakespeare , British dramatist )

满瓶不响，半瓶咣当。(英国剧作家 莎士比亚. W.)

1、充分发挥自己的优势。擅长形象思维、会刻画人物的同学可选择记叙文，擅长抒情的同学可选择散文。初中生一般不提倡写议论文。

2、精写前几段，给评卷老师留下一个好印象。要精雕细刻，要出彩。比如，可开门见山，直奔主题;可制造悬念，引人入胜;可提出问题，引人注意;或巧用排比、比喻、拟人等修辞手法，或。巧述故事，引人入胜，或巧用题记，揭示主旨，或巧用诗文显诗意。写好结尾和过渡段。阅卷老师一般是S型的扫描全文。结尾可画龙点睛，发人深思;或总结全文，照应开头;或虚笔拓展，扩大容量;或精辟议论，深化主旨。

3、作文成绩看字迹，得分要素是第一 任何形式的作文考试，阅卷老师打分时，第一眼，看的是字迹。因此，写作文必须要把字写好。记住，考作文考的是内容，而不是书法，切忌字迹潦草。

4、考试作文五六段，干净整洁看卷面 考试作文中，要注意及时分段，三四个段落显得少了，八九个段落，显得琐碎了些。除非有特殊情况，段落以五六个为好。此外，卷面一定要整洁，不要涂改得乱七八糟。我的看法是，考试作文每段最好别超过5行，顶多是5行半。切忌一段都八九行。一旦给阅卷老师视觉上的疲劳，影响他的心理，分数就受影响。

5、色彩对比也关键，建议用笔选择蓝 考试作文的卷子上，都是用黑颜色印刷的方格。建议学生用不浅不深、笔画不粗不细的蓝色中性笔写作文。这样的作文写出来，与黑色的方格形成一定的视觉对比，在视觉上有眼前一亮的感觉，分数上可能就会占便宜。写作文的时候，建议占方格下面或者左下面的四分之三，这样，显得卷面美观。

6、开头结尾要简练，最好首尾两行半 除了忌八九行的行文外，“大头作文”也要不得。建议考生在写作文的时候，开头结尾占两行半，顶多不能超过三行半。视觉会有瞬间的疲劳，也会影响阅卷老师的情绪。

7、动笔之前要拟题，漂亮标题如美女 考试作文中，一般都是由考生自己来拟定题目，题目不宜太长和太短。拟题的办法有2个，一是你去百度上搜索一下作文拟题目，可以找到作文老师讲述的类似技巧。二是考生家长或考生，赶紧去翻阅最近一年的读者和青年文摘的合订本，根据题材，选择几十个比较精彩的标题，背下来，考试的时候可能依葫芦画瓢地就能采用到。

说明文，即用来解释或说明事物、理论、方法、过程或某种抽象概念的文章。说明文的基本目的就是说清楚。也就是说，要让人看了文章后对文章中解释或说明的对象有清晰明确的认识。这就决定了说明文的基本特征是客观和科学。

说明文首要的一点是明确说明的对象，然后用准确的语言，结合多种说明手法对之进行介绍和描述。常用的说明手法有下定义、分类别、作比较、引资料、举例子、列数字、画图表等。下定义，即给要说明的对象下一个明确的定义。如博物馆的定义就是征集、保藏、陈列和研究代表自然和人类的实物,并为公众提供知识、教育和欣赏的文化教育机构。分类别是将要说明的对象按照某种标准划分类别，以帮助读者对事物的理解。如电视机，可以分为彩色电视机和黑白电视机。作比较，即将这种事物与那种事物比较异同，从而更清楚地说明事物的特点。如将城市和乡村作比较，将大学和幼儿园作比较等。作比较的时候一定要注意比较的事物之间应当具有可比性，不能生拉硬扯，也不能不尊重客观事实，胡乱比较。为了说明某种事物的特点，有时候需要介绍它的背景、原理、历史等，这时就要用到引资料这种手法。比如我们要对长城进行说明，适当地引用一些历史文献，就更有助于今天的人们了解长城的历史，从而加深对长城中所蕴含的民族精神的认识。在复杂说明文中，列图表具有不可替代的优势。大量的数据、冗长的叙述、复杂的相互关系等，都可以通过图表得到直观的表达。

按说明的对象不同，说明文可分为事物说明文和事理说明文。前者着重在于说明的成因、构造、形状、用途等，后者则重在说明事理。这两类说明文常用的写作手法也有一定的区别。比如事物说明文重在说明事物的物理特征，常用的是下定义、分类别等说明手法，事理说明文重在说明事物的逻辑特征，地要用到引资料、作比较等说明手法。但时候，在同一篇文章中，几种说明手法都要用到，相辅相成，互为补充。

如何使说明文物理并重、形神兼备的呢?首要的一点是观察。说明文写作的前提是对要说明的事物非常熟悉。要做到这一点，就要养成认真观察、深入了解的习惯：

观察要有针对性。要带着问题观察，而不是走马观花、浮光掠影。最好能在观察前列出观察提纲，观察时要记笔记、画图标。要善于提出问题。

观察时要分清主次。这就要求我们注意观察的顺序。观察有概括性观察和特写性观察之分。前一种方法有助于抓住事物的概貌，后者则利于把握观察对象的细节和特征。由概括到特写、由全局到局部，是观察的一般原理。

观察重在事物的形。要想传神，写出事物的内涵、原理等，则需要有很好的查阅资料、作调查的能力。比如我们要写一篇文章来说明洛阳牡丹。在写好它的形状、颜色、品种之外，如果能够考察一下洛阳牡丹的来历、其中的牡丹名品在培育中的科学原理，这篇文章就会有说服力，使读者更深刻地认识到洛阳牡丹的文化特色。这就要求我们具备相当的知识积累、广阔的知识面和优秀的调查能力。作为小，应当从小注重积累知识和调查能力的训练。比如通过剪报、记笔记、上图书馆和阅览室等途径来有意识地训练自己。

写作说明文还要注意说明的顺序。有合理的顺序，文章才能条理清晰，让人看得明白。说明顺序一般有三种，即空间顺序、时间顺序、逻辑顺序。间顺序一般有从上到下、从左到右、从前到后、从远到近等。时间顺序一般有从古到今、从过去到现在等。逻辑顺序有从现象到本质、从原因到结果、从主要到次要、从整体到部分、从概括到具体等。什么是合理的顺序呢?这要根据人们认识事物的过程以及说明对象本身的特征、规律而定。说明事物的形状、构造等，往往以空间为顺序;说明事物的成因、方法，往往以时间为顺序;说明事物的事理，往往以逻辑关系为顺序。

当然，大多数说明文会综合使用多种说明顺序。因此，在写作时，我们要合理地安排好说明顺序，理清说明文的结构层次。常用的结构层次有并列式、层进式和总分式三种。比如我们以“水”为题目进行写作，可以先写水的外形特征，再写水的分类，然后写水的用途，这是并列式的写作层次。我们也可以先写水的外形，再写水的成因，最后写水给人类带来的利与害，这是层进式的结构层次。先概括水的用途和特征，再一一细述，就是总分式。结构层次能力需发们在长期的写作过程中培养。

课文中的经典句子，又是精华中的精华，背熟之后对你的写作语法有很大的帮助。下面来看看小编为大家带来的英语课文经典句子吧，希望对你有帮助。

1、 Flora,whose beautiful hair and dress were all cold and wet, started crying.

2、 Tree after tree went down, cut down by the water, which must have been three meters deep.

3、 The garden that was once so beautiful was completely destroyed, swept away by the wild water.

4、 I found some photos of interesting places which were not too far away from Chengdu.

5、 He told me that I could go on a two-day trip to Leshan and Emei, which wasn’t too expensive.

6、 First,we went to Leshan, where we climbed all the way up the mountain to see the Buddha.

7、 Looking up at the large head and down at the large feet makes you feel so small.

8、 Wei Bin took photos of us standing in front of the Buddha.

9、 Steven Spielberg, whose mother was a music teacher, was born in 1946 in a small town in America.

10、 In 1959 Spielberg won a prize for a film which he made when he was thirteen years old.

11、 The reason why he could not go there was that his grades were too low.

12、 Here he worked on a short film, which won him a job as the youngest film director in the world.

13、 This was the moment when Spieberg’s career really took off.

14、 I hate hiking and Im not into classical music.

15、 I surf the Internet all the time and I like playing computer games.

16、 Rock music is OK, and so is skiing.

17、 When are you off to Guangzhou?

18、 My plane leaves at seven, so I think we’ll take a taxi.

19、 See you when I get back.

20、 The next moment the first wave swept her down, swallowing the garden.

21、 Now ,the water, which was cold as ice and flowed faster than a river, was above her knees.

22、 Jeff and Flora looked into each other’s face with a look of fright.

23、 Chuck is a businessman who is always so busy that he has little time for his friends.

24、 One day Chuck is on a flight across the Pacific Ocean when suddenly his plane crashes.

25、 He realizes that he hasn’t been a very good friend because he has always been thinking about himself.

26、 Chuck learns that we need friends to share happiness and sorrow, and that it is important to have someone to care about.

27、 When he makes friends with Wilson, he understand that friendship is about feelings and that we must give as much as we take.

28、 The lesson we can learn from Chuck and all the others who have unusual friends is that friends are teachers.

29、 I found the bathroom, but I didn’t find what I was looking for.

30、 Don’t forget to buy me some ketchup on your way back.

31、 There are more than 42 countries where the majority of the people speak English.

32、 In total, for more than 375 million people English is their mother tongue.

33、 In China students learn English at school as a foreign language, except for those in Hong Kong, where many people speak English as a first or a second language.

34、 In only fifty years, English has developed into the language most widely spoken and used in the world.

35、 With so many people communicating in English every day ,it will become more and more important to have a good knowledge of English.

36、 For a long time the language in America stayed the same, while the language in England changed.

37、 In the same way Americans still use the expression “I guess “(meaning “I think”),just as the British did 300 years ago.

38、 At the same time, British English and American English started borrowing words from other languages ,ending up with different words.

39、 Except for these differences in spelling, written English is more or less the same in both British and American English.

40、 However,most of the time people from the two countries do not have any difficulty in understanding each other.

41、 Many people travel because they want to see other countries and visit places that are famous, interesting or beautiful.

42、 Many of today’s travelers are looking for an unusual experience and adventure travel is becoming more and more popular.

43、 Instead of spending your vacation on a bus, in a hotel or sitting on the beach, you may want to try hiking.

44、 Hiking is fun and exciting, but you shouldn’t forget safety.

45、 A raft is a small boat that you can use to paddle down rivers and streams.

46、 If you want a normal rafting trip, choose a quiet stream or river that is wide and has few fallen trees or rocks.

47、 The name “whitewater “comes from the fact that the water in these streams and rivers looks white when it moves quickly.

1、True mastery of any skill takes a lifetime.

对任何技能的掌握都需要一生的刻苦操练。

2、Sweat is the lubricant of success.

汗水是成功的润滑剂。

3、If you are doing your best,you will not have to worry about failure.

如果你竭尽全力，你就不用担心失败。

4、Energy and persistence conquer all things.

能量和坚持可以征服一切事情。

5、Bravery never goes out of fashion.

勇敢永远不过时!

6、Those who turn back never reach the summit.

回头的人永远到不了最高峰!

7、Proper preparation solves 80 percent of lifes problems.

适当的准备能解决生活中80%的问题。

8、Winners do what losers dont want to do.

胜利者做失败者不愿意做的事!

9、Every noble work is at first impossible.

每一个伟大的工程最初看起来都是不可能做到的!

10、We improve ourselves by victories over ourselves. There must be contests, and we must win.

我们通过战胜自己来改进自我。 那里一定有竞赛，我们一定要赢!

11、Speech is the image of actions.

语言是行动的反映。

12、It is always morning somewhere in the world.

世界上总是有某个地方可以看到阳光。

13、If you do not learn to think when you are young, you may never learn. ( Edison )

如果你年轻时不学会思考，那就永远不会。(爱迪生)

14、Anger begins with folly, and ends in repentance.

愤怒以愚蠢开始，以后悔告终。

15、Talents come from diligence, and knowledge is gained by accumulation.

天才在于勤奋，知识在于积累。

16、The greater the man, the more restrained his anger.

人越伟大，越能克制怒火。

17、If there were less sympathy in the world, there would be less trouble in the world. ( O. Wilde )

如果世界上少一些同情，世界上也就会少一些麻烦。(王尔德)

18、All lay load on the willing horse.

人善被人欺，马善被人骑。

19、Strike the iron while it is hot.

趁热打铁。

20、When shepherds quarrel, the wolf has a winning game.

鹬蚌相争，渔翁得利。

善于思考勤于积累

要想在中考作文中拿到高分，这需要考生在日常生活中善于观察，不能两耳不闻窗外事，而应积极关注当今社会热点，如人口问题、污染问题、世界和平等一系列现象；要善于思考，勤于把自己的思想用英语正确地表达和记录下来，只有通过不断的积累和磨练，才能练就良好的写作基本功。

认真审题写好提纲

考生在拿到试卷之后，当听力题做完，可以先看一看作文的题目与类型，对它有一个大致的印象和准备，在做语法和阅读题时对自己的作文能有一个初步的构思。应尽可能地留出20分钟的时间来写作文。在正式写作文时，可参照以下步骤：

1、认真审题，确定题目中的关键词。

2、展开一次“BrainStorm”即头脑风暴，对该题引申出各种联想和论点。

3、根据自己已有的经验和词汇量选择自己最熟悉、最有把握的方面和论点来写作。

4、确定基本的写作时态，如记叙文通常用一般过去时（时态运用错误是考生们大量失分的主要原因）。

5、对于有能力的同学，注意不能通篇均用简单句型，可适当引入初中的语法重点如状语从句、宾语从句和被动语态等。这会使考生的作文有质的提高。

6、当整篇作文写完，一定要进行仔细的检查，注意使句子流畅，时态运用准确，单词拼写正确，冠词运用正确，名词的大小写正确。

医学论文是促进医学科研成果的交流和提高医疗技术水平的重要工具，小编收集了医学论文写作技巧，欢迎阅读。

医学论文是推进医学科学发展的重要方面，是医学科学研研和临床工作总结;是促进医学科研成果的交流和提高医疗技术水平的重要工具，一篇好的医学论文，要求具备两个：

以下几个方面：①医学科研论文内容的科学性、先进性、实用性。②写作技巧上注意文字简洁、观点鲜明、数据准确、内容真实、具有实验的重复性、符合国家标准的计量单位。

一、科学性：

一篇医学论文的首要条件是必须具有科学性。所谓科学性、是指论文所介绍的方法、论点，是否可以使用科学方法来证实，多次实验具有实验结果的重复性。这就要求： ⑴ 进行科研设计时具有周密的考虑，排除一切对实验结果可能干扰的不利因素; ⑵ 设立必要的对照组，甚至双盲对照研究; ⑶ 对实验和观察的数据，要进行统计学处理; ⑷ 无论理论研究和实验研究，对其结果的分析要从实际资料出发，得出正确的结论，切忌空谈假设。

二、先进性：

医学论文的先进性，实际上指这篇论文是否达到一定的科学水准，一篇论文尽管具备了科学性，但不一定具备先进性，对医学论文的先进性，我们可以从两个方面来衡量，一是医学理论水平，如原理探讨，疗效机制等是否有新的突破;二是实践水平，如诊断水平及治疗水平高于一般的医疗技术。

三、实用性：

与临床诊断及治疗的紧密联系，具有可重复性。最终目的解决临床上的疑难病症、如：对癌症发病机制、及对癌症的诊断治疗具有相当的指导作用。

四、医学论文的类型：一般医学刊物中刊用的文章，大致可分为以下几种类型：述评、论著、病例报告、临床病例讨论、学术交流、综述、专题笔谈、经验介绍、讲座、简讯等。

五、医学论文的基础结构：

医学论文的具体撰写，一般可分为题目、序言、材料与方法、结果、讨论、参考文献等项。题目：医学论文的题目必须符合内容而简明扼要、突出重点，能够明确表达论文的性质和目的。题目一般都采用主要由名词组成的词组来表达，且标题不宜过长、一般少于 20 字。摘要：全文必须描述通过什么方法，得到什么结果，资料及数据来源，提出的结论。具体按四要素来书写中、英文摘要：目的方法( Methods )、结果( Results )、结论( Results )、中英文内容要一致。字数控制在 200 字左右。关键词或主题词 3 ～ 5 条。 英文摘要应包括文题、作者姓名(汉语拼音)、单位名称、所在城市名及邮政编码。作者应列出前3位， 3 位以上加 "et al" 。序言：过去研究的情况、方法、目的和所获得的主要成果或特点。文字不宜超过 100 ～ 200 字。 材料和方法：这是执行科研的关键部分， 对于要进行的科学研究工作，必须按照实际情况，在事先： ⑴ 选择好合适的即合乎一定条件的、一定数量的研究对象; ⑵ 采用一定的实验、诊断或治疗方法(包括实验步骤、方法、器材试剂、药品); ⑶ 经过一定时期的观察，相同条件下的对照组，与他人结果比较并综合分析。这部分内容要求简明准确、材料完整及可信。 结果：把全部原始资料集中起来加以分析，在处理这些原始资料时，应是随机地，客观地加以分析。讨论：是一篇论文中十分重要的部分，其主要任务是探讨 “结果 ”的意义。讨论的主要内容包括： ⑴ 主要的原理和概念; ⑵ 实验条件的优缺点; ⑶ 本人结果与他人结果的异同，突出新的发现及新发明; ⑷ 解释因果关系，说明偶然性与必然性; ⑸ 尚未定论之处，相反的理论; ⑹ 急需研究的方向和存在的主要问题。“讨论”的内容也以精简为原则，要能讲清楚主要的论点，已经谈过的不宜在这一节里予以重复。在结论的问题中避免以假设来 “证明”假设，以未知来说明未知，并依次循环推论。参考文献：列出参考文献的目的，在于引证资料的来源，不可从别人的论文中转抄过来。内部资料，非经正式发表者，一般不作文献引用，为此一般要求引用文献者必须用阅读过的重要的、近年的文献为准。论著 10 条左右，论著摘要 3 ～ 5 条，综述 20 条左右。

六：医学论文的产生过程：

选题阶段：论文的选题，也即是科研的选题，有时一项科研可产生多篇论文。选题过程一般可分为三步：初拟题目：在这项工作之前必须手中有资料和设想，当然可以是前瞻性研究或回顾性总结，大致可有以下几个方面： ⑴ 临床遇到的罕见病例和疑难病例;⑵ 危重病人的诊治经验; ⑶ 阅读国内外文献、参加学术会议受到的启发，进行技术和方法的移植研究; ⑷ 新药、新仪器的临床应用，新的诊断方法及治疗经验; ⑸ 上级布置或招标的题目。在初步考虑拟选题目之后，应进行全面的文献检索，避免题目类同、结论陈旧和不符合客观事实。在别人研究成果基础上寻找尚未解决的问题作为自己的研究题目。实验研究阶段：这包括应用国外或国内的先进手段、药物、手术方法、检测等进行临床试用、观察和随访调查，并用动物或正常人作对照试验，要求详细记录各种数据及资料，作为论证和评价成果的依据。整理、分析资料和总结阶段：对以上资料进行统计分析，绘制图表，临床分析和比较，得出显效、有效和生存率、死亡率、发病率等结论，并分析其相互关系，引证文献作对比。分析成功和失败的原因及制约因素，并对病因学、流行病学、发病机制进行论证，包括预后的估价。最后对论文作出自我评价，提出有待进一步探讨的问题。撰写论文阶段：该详则祥，该简则简，文字简练，用语准确，恰如其氛，切忌浮夸和虚构。当然，在产生论文以前，每位作者必须学会文献检索，统计学的基础知识的 X2 检验、 T 检验、 F 检验、相关分析、回归运算、如何选择样本大小等，努力阅读医学情报信息和文献积累，在实践中不断总结，逐步提高写作水平，这样才能水到渠成写出真正好的论文。

七：医学论文撰写中的常见问题：科研设计的选题与立题问题标题太长，主题不突出。标题与内容不符，或题目太大而内容贫乏。 标题单调，主题不明确。 关于题目要求： ⑴ 可检索性; ⑵ 特异; ⑶ 明确; ⑷ 简短。命题方法： ⑴ 方法; ⑵ 结论; ⑶ 探讨。关于把 " 构成比 " 当 " 率 " 的概念问题：在医学文献中，我们发现有些作者对患病率、发病率、死亡率、感染率等概念混淆不清。关于疗效的确切评价问题：只有观察组没有对照组，有比较才能有鉴别，医学研究结果如无适当的对照比较，就难结论。即使有了对照组，若两者之间没有可比性，同样不能得出确切的结论。以上可见，对照组与实验组一定在性别、年龄、病情、病期、病型、部位、疗程等条件大致相同的情况下，才有可比性，其结果才有科学价值。

病例资料经过有意无意的挑选：有些论文，对所谓 “资料不全”、 “疗程未满 ”、“未随访到”的病例剔除不计，这样所得的结果往往比实际疗效高，因为若如此剔除，其结果的科学性必然成问题。更有甚者，对一些数据，主观臆断地以某种原因为理由加以剔除，完全失去了这次研究的意义。考核方法和考核指标的科学性不够： ⑴ 无明确的客观指标、仅凭患者主诉进行考核;⑵ 观察、研究人员的主观偏面性; ⑶ 考核标准过低; ⑷ 数据未经统计学处理; ⑸ 考核方法不够科学。统计学分析的差错。 ⑴ 对照组的设立(随机同期对照、历史性对照、不同地区或医院的对照交叉对照); ⑵ 随机化分组(简单、区组、分层); ⑶ 盲法(非盲、双盲)。以上资料，说明了在考核疗效时一定要注意： ⑴ 病例资料的可比性; ⑵ 客观数据要经统计学处理; ⑶ 考核指标要有严格的科学性(可比性、指标不能过低，不能有主观偏面性等)。

图表的应用问题：图表是表达研究数据，使之一目了然的最简洁方法。一般来说 “图”是从 “表”来的，可以使读者从图中看出一个大概趋势和实验内容。在图表应用上，可用文字表达的就尽可能不用图表，必需用的也不宜过多，一般在 4 幅以内。

八：写作技巧问题：论文要使读者喜爱就必须求 “新”、 “精”、“全”。文字简练达到“量体裁衣”的水平，力争达到“少一句不够，多一句嫌罗嗦”的要求。一般论著字数在 2500 ～ 5000 字左右，摘要在 1500 ～ 2001 字左右，病例报告在 1000 字左右。字迹要端正。简化字要规范，不用自选字及自选简化字。各种符号亦要符合规范。其他当有医学名词、药物名词、数字、统计学符号、缩略语、基金资助、著作权法等问题，一切均按国家及中华医学会规定的标准执行。计量单位请按法定计量单位书写。

一：用介词短语替代从句，例：

原句：While they were playing tennis, she started an argument that lasted all morning.

修改后：During tennis she started an argument that lasted all morning.

原句：When you come to the second traffic light, turn right.

修改后：At the second traffic light turn left.

二：删除诸如"who is”或"that is"之类的关系代词，变从句为短语，例：

句：The novel, which is written in three parts, told a story that took place in the Middle Ages.

修改后：The three-part novel told a story set in the Middle Ages.

注：把句中的"three parts"改用形容词来表达，节省了四个不必要的单词"which is written in"。我们经常可以将关系代词如"that"去掉，这只会引起最少的变动。

三：剔除你不需要的单词，例：

Two joint partners will present their views over a long-distance telephone call.

写完这样的句子后，你自己再读一遍，挑出单词"joint"和"telephone"，注意删去不必要的词。

英语写作注意两点

一、先审题，弄清写作要求审题是写好作文的前提，也是书面表达的基础。如果写偏了题，语言表达再好也很难得高分。审题时要注意两个方面：

1.认真地看两遍题目，包括提示，全面了解写作要求。

2.理清思路，确定体裁、框架结构和内容。

二、用英语进行思维英语写作时必须排除汉语思维的干扰。

从现在起应逐渐加大阅读量和听的输入量，将阅读、听力训练与书面表达有机地结合起来。经常体会和领悟作者传递信息和表达思想的方式。在话题讨论和写作中经常运用所学到的表达方式就会有所创造。还要尽量做到“五多”：多看、多听、多思考、多用心体验和感悟身边的人和事、多用英语说和写自己的体验和感受。

四级作文考查的是写作的基本功，其准确用词包括三重含义：一是书写正确，即拼写和大小写等无误；二是词义正确，即所用的词确定能表达自己的意图；三是用法正确，包括词的语法搭配关系和意义搭配关系等。

选词的标准是：所选的词应该准确达意，通俗易懂，并符合英语的表达习惯。选词的重要性我们不再赘述，这里我们着重介绍由于用词不当而造成的错误现象。错误现象的成因很多，而形近词的误用是出错的重要原因之一。比如：有个美国学生在作文中这样写道：My goal in life is to be a success, and when I retire I want to devote my money to philandering。这个学生把最后一个词弄错了，他原来想说的词是philanthropy，结果意思相差十万八千里。

下面我们从句子和段落两方面，通过具体实例来说明选词在短文写作中的重要性，以及因为选词不当而造成的错误现象。

【例1】 Good study habits attributed to his performance on tests。

【分析】该句中的attributed to意为把归于；认为是的原因，用在这是不符合句意的。我们知道contribute to意为助于；促成，所以这里是因词义混淆而产生的句子的逻辑错误。

【更正】Good study habits contribute to his performance on tests。

[四级考试写作选词方法与技巧

在节假日，小学生在父母和老的在节假日，小学生在父母和老师的带领下，到公园和游览区欣赏景物、陶冶性情。这是一篇很好的游记题材，小编收集了小学生游记作文写作技巧，欢迎阅读。

一、 按游览的顺序描写景物。

写作时，要在认真观察和记忆游览的景物的基础上，按照见到景物的次序，来写所看到的景物。这样才能做到条理清楚、自然、明白，不致于杂乱。观察景物，通常有两种方法。一种就是定点观察。如站在公园某一角，对公园进行由远及近的观察。又如我们登上塔顶，从东南西北四个方向对塔下景物进行观察。二就是移动观察，它又叫移步换位法。就是随着脚步的移动变换位置，一处一处地进行观察。选好了观察点，就是确定好了写作的顺序。

二、 抓住游览重点，详写过程。

一次参观游览活动，看到的景物很多，我们不能记流水帐。要把看到的景物中印象较深的写下来，其余地可以写得简略些。我们要一边参观游览，一边要抓住景物的特点，进行仔细观察。比方说，我们要写游览看到的景物为主的记叙文，写作的重点就是把看到的景物重点写下来。对于我们看到的特别好的景物，我们要进行具体地描写，突出重点。对于重点的景物，要注意详细描写出它们的位置、大小、动态、静态、颜色等。如我们写菊花，颜色就有红的如枫叶、白的如冰霜、黄的如麦穗等等，菊花的形状就有像小姑娘的卷发，毛茸茸的小鸡，绣球等等。我们要把过程写详细、具体，做到主次分明，详略得当，写出来的文章才能突出重点，清楚明白，才能写出游览的意义，才有教育意义。

三、略写前后，情、理、景相结合。

我们在写游记时，应把开头和结尾写得简略些，作文指导《小学生游记作文范文写作技巧》。开头要交待清楚时间、地点和人物。如《游善卷洞》的开头我的故乡江苏宜兴有一处著名的游览胜地——善卷洞。结尾应用议论或抒情的方式写下自己的感受。如《天然动物园漫游记》的结尾写道‘哈哈……’我们在欢笑声中结束了这次愉快的野游。朱库米天然动物园行的乐趣是无穷的，无怪乎世界各地前去游览的人络绎不绝。这样，写的文章有头有尾，读起来给人一个完整的印象。我们要把感情融化于景物中，写出真意。写作时，我们要倾注自己的思想感情。还有，我们在写景的同时，或探索人生真谛，或谈论思想问题，治学精神，使读者在领略自然风景的同时，受到启迪和教育。

切忌：

一、游记作文不要写成旅游路线图;

二、针对你游览的某一地留下深刻印象的景点来作文;

三、必须考虑游记的顺序，空间，时间，角度(远到近);

四、描写不必面面俱到，要懂得删减枝叶;

五、选着留有深刻印象的点来做发挥，其中一定要有详略，那几个略写哪几个详写要想清楚;

六、注意历史事物和历史事件，传说的巧妙结合，更能凸显出游览的意义和文章的深度;

七、借景抒情的手法应该运用;

八、人文景观的描写中，环境烘托是必要的，选着恰当的景色进行烘托;

九、自然景观的描写中，修辞手法应该运用，但是不要落俗套，好好自己去用心感受，最好有些贴切的修辞创新。

一、开门见山亮观点

这种开头方法，单刀直入，起笔直奔题意，能很快把阅卷老师的注意力引入主题。给人干脆利落，入题快捷，不枝不蔓的感觉。应为考场作文开头的首选方法。其形式有：引用题目，直奔中心;揭示主旨，确定基调;概括内容，总领全文;提出论点，表明立场;等等。

例：挥手自兹去，一半是洒脱，一半是留念。(2015年四川省成都市中考满分作文《挥手自兹去》开头)

文章直接用命题作文《挥手自兹去》的题目“挥手自兹去”来开头，将十五岁分为两种情境：一半是洒脱，即成熟;一半是青涩，即留念，干脆利落，不拖泥带水，直接点明中心。然后以“青涩一半”、“激情满怀”两个小标题分层展开正文。结尾以“嗨，挥手十五岁，伴着火焰燃烧的季节自兹而去!”照应开头，使文章结构紧凑而又圆润。

二、形象描绘抓特征

这种开头方法，通过生动形象的描写，把要写的主要人物或事物的特征先呈现在读者面前，能感染人，引起阅读兴趣。

例：照片上臭美的丫头是谁?瞧瞧，本小姐。一个挺有个性的女孩。每天都用蓝头绳扎着马尾辫，辫子长得都快碰到屁股了，穿着随意但又不凌乱，白白胖胖的瓜子脸上嵌着一双不大但炯炯有神的眼睛，弯弯的眉毛又宽又淡，不怎么好看，小巧玲珑的嘴巴能说会道，难怪外婆说我可以去当律师，脸颊两侧的小耳朵可灵了，一有什么动静，便马上汇报。左邻右舍都夸我聪明。(2015年湖北省武汉市中考满分文《我呀，属猴的》开头)

小作者开头抓住自己独特的外貌进行描写，生动形象，给人留下印象，引发读者浓浓的阅读兴趣。且采用第一人称，娓娓道来，使人感到亲切。

三、巧引妙改凸主题

由于诗词、名言、警句等语言精粹、众所周知的特点，能揭示某种人生哲理，给人启示，还可帮助突出中心，增添文章丰富性和文化底蕴。因此巧引妙改能使文章的开头妙趣横生。“巧引”，即在文章开头引用与文章所写内容有关的诗篇、名言、警句等，这样，能够产生先声夺人的效果，增加文章的趣味性和文学性，加强文章论述的权威性。“妙改”，即在文章的起笔处，对古语、俗谚、对联、行业术语、流行语、歌词、名言、诗文等进行引用，改写进入自己的文章。

例：“为什么我的眼里常含泪水，因为我对这土地爱得深沉。”那是一方美丽的土地，一方让人无法割舍的土地。我把生命的根留在那里，那里，有一种声音，如微风，清清凉凉，滋润心田;有一种声音，如阳光，飘飘洒洒，洒满温情。那是海的洗礼浪的张扬，时时触碰着我瓢忽不定的心扉。(2015 年山东省济南市中考满分作文《那声音，常在我心田》开头)

四、设置悬疑激兴趣

就是在开头就陈述要点，提出问题;或把事件的结尾放在开头，吸引人寻根问底;或是让某关键环节藏头露尾，给人“雾里看花”之感;或用求异思维，反向立意，别出心裁，激起读者的阅读兴趣。

例： 这天，汤姆从本市晚报上看到一则广告：“人体配件更换厂——还你一个崭新的自己!”汤姆很好奇，人体配件还能更换?是医院吧?太不可思议，人体部件难道能像汽车配件一样随意更换?(2015 年江西省中考满分作文《丢》开头)

考生将命题作文《丢》巧妙构思成一篇童话，故事情节离奇而生动。文章寓说理于童话故事中，让人读来感到诙谐有趣，文中蕴含的道理也易于被人们接受。文中的主人公汤姆为了追求完美，竟然把整个身体一点点换成了仿真材料。最后，他成了一名机器人，彻底丢弃了真我。当他最后一点电量耗尽，濒临死亡时，他十分后悔。虽然是童话，但主人公的心理完全符合普通人的想法。而这篇文章的开头提出问题，设置悬念，抓住了人们阅读时的好奇心理，精心设计吸引读者阅读下文，效果很好，无疑也为本文评为满分作文增添了亮点。

五、烘云托月造氛围

这种开头方法，先交代事件发生的时间、地点和环境，然后再引出主题，能起到制造气氛，烘托人物心情和中心的作用，抒情味道浓。或借用某一情景作为媒介，从中引出要写的人或事，委婉舒展，引人遐想，并为下文叙述开拓思路。

例：屋外的桂花树开满了花，轻风一吹，桂花纷纷扬扬地飘落下来，落在树下的小人头上、肩上。那个人就是我。见桂花飘落下来，我会挥舞着短短的手臂在风中自嗨。

哇，好香的花朵呀，那种清香的感觉真是太美太美。(2015 年重庆市中考满分作文《我们携手走进童年》开头)

这是一篇追忆童年的文章。这样的文章对初中生来说并不陌生，可这篇文章在组织选材上，小作者却有很明显的用心，下了一番工夫。童年可写的东西很多，作者只选了一个场景，即桂花树下，这个场景写得十分优美动人，颇有画意诗韵，让人产生无边的遐思。然后作者写了在桂花树下玩水枪，等爸爸回家，与伙伴们数星星与吃玉米等生动的情景，表达了对童年深深的怀念之情。

六、巧用修辞展文采

修辞是文章的衣衫，是语言运用中不可缺少的部分。巧妙而贴切的修辞手法的运用能使文章的语言增添许多风采。在考场作文中，考生若能熟练运用修辞手法扮靓语言，定能收到良好的效果。而打造“凤头”最妙的方法是灵活运用修辞。如：运用比喻，能给人形象美和文采美之感;运用拟人，能给人以生动亲切之感;运用排比，能增强文章语言气势，显得感情充沛激荡，又能彰显出作者的语文功底;运用设问，能引人思考，激发读者阅读兴趣;等等。

例：人与人之间的对话，就如缕缕阳光，悠然洒下，合成光束，照进心间，驱开不散的阴霾;又如丝丝细雨，翩然落下，汇成小河，流入心房，滋润原本干涸的心田;还如房檐的水滴，一滴一滴地坠落，最终滴穿了磐石坚硬的隔阂。(2015 年北京市中考满分作文《对话》开头)

这篇命题作文《对话》，思路相当开阔，开篇用排比、比喻，形象生动，以丰富的想象，设置了不同的意象，引出写作的中心。主体部分用“对话，在于心与心的沟通”、“对话，在于情感的表达”、“对话，在于彼此间的理解”三个提示性语句，总领写作角度，分三个层次，展示出清晰的写作思路。文章主体部分中列举了钟子期与俞伯牙的故事、高适的名言、焦仲卿与刘兰芝的爱情故事、雨果的名言，表达了对话题的理解，使整篇文章内容充实，十分耐读。作者丰厚的积累可见一斑。

时刻注意“的、地、得”的用法，这是语言的硬功夫，不能懈怠和马虎。平时形成好习惯，考试时不要出错。

注意句子的完整性。一般来说，一句话有主语谓语宾语等，这句话基本就结束了，这时就要用句号了。假如句子之间是同一类，可适当用分号。不能一逗到底。结尾或者合适的地方，可用感叹号、省略号等。标点符号要规矩，也要丰富。

语言的精彩有奥妙。一是语言的华丽和词汇的丰富。二是比喻修辞的运用，比喻和排比，是最通用的方法。记住，不要干巴巴地讲述，注意引用点古诗词、修辞等等。

小学和初中作文考试，就按记叙文准备。开头结尾要准备好几套方法，什么类型用什么开头，你用什么方法比较拿手，考试前一两天，尤其是头天晚上，默记一下。准备结尾，要背好一两个结尾的语言类型，可以有排比、比喻或者反问。实在不行，就用做梦式结尾法。

写记叙文，无非是亲情、诚信、善良、爱心等等，记住，实现要准备好各种类型的，发生在自己生活中的，典型的事例，到时候写进去。考场上临时想，很难想出动人心的事例来。

一般来说，试卷上的空格，比要求的字数要多一些。争取写满而不溢出。最理想的字数是就留下一两行的空格。

作文一定要注意卷面的整洁，一笔一划地把字写好。要养成好习惯，只要拿笔，就要写出端正的字来。在写字的时候，最好在格子上方留下点空隙，使每行之间，显得清晰。

必须学会5分钟内列提纲，要面对卷面的格子，想好哪个段写什么，写到卷面的什么位置。列提纲的时候，开头和结尾必须想详细，最好事先写出来。

开头结尾，不要很长。开头几句话就接近中心思想，三四行结束开头，不要弄大头作文。结尾是抒情或者归纳主题，语言优美，三四行结束，不要弄大尾巴结尾。注意，不要出现大肚子作文。

写记叙文，要想好叙事的层次，按时间或者按地点，或者按故事发生的节奏，一个层次一段。注意，假如某一段需要详细些，文字比较多，注意分段，死拉硬拽也要分段，不要一段超过七八行。如果写议论文，开头论点提出后，接下来的每段都是论证过程，一个论据就是一段。结尾可变相重复论点，稍微抒情。

一、四级作文概述

四级作文是提纲作文，一般按提纲写出相应段落即可。在文章内容上无需追求高深新颖，切题合理便可落笔；在思路逻辑上则要求句意通顺，文字流畅；在文字表现上要求无语法错误，个别小错可忽略(如动介搭配，单词拼写等不涉及语法类小错)。另外，值得一提的是，在篇章结构上建议写三段，所以即便题目只给出两个提纲，最好在完成两个提纲后，再多补充一段，所补内容不限，但须跟话题相关。

二、四级作文例题分析

(1) The Shortage of Fresh Water

1. 目前淡水资源非常紧缺

2. 为什么会出现这种情况

3. 该如何解决

96年6月份曾考过此题，今天来看，似乎更有现实意义。这是一道负面社会现象题，那么挖掘其背后根源，并找出解决方案，就成为探讨的主要方面，而提纲也正是如此。三个提纲各属其类，界限清晰，直接按提纲写三段即可。段1为提出现象，确立研究对象。提纲1翻译后仅一句话，作为一段话则显内容单薄，字数匮乏，所以需进一步发挥。不妨从例证角度扩充，举例时即可基于国内现状，也可纵观全球，显然前者更易行。可从我国西南地区的生活缺水，水价上升，以及河流干涸等细节方面铺陈。段2是原因分析，建议分析主观原因和客观原因两方面。所谓主观原因即是基于人的思想意念，心理意识，行为动机以及行为举措，比如人们节约意识的淡漠或者人们误认为淡水取之不尽等不当想法。而客观原因则是从非人角度出发，如社会发展，人口激增，甚至污染的加剧等方面出发，这些因素均使得淡水消耗的增加。当然，考场上由于时间紧迫，无法细想，可能会写出的两个全是主观类或客观类的原因，其实也无妨，只要二者不同即可，谨防虽言明两原因，但实则彼此混淆，出现逻辑不清的窘况。段3是措施分析，措施可从官方措施和民众措施两方面写起，也可加入作为现代年轻人，我该如何约束自己，从生活中小事做起节约水资源等内容。总之，在内容上考生尽可发挥想象力，纵马驰骋，原则依旧：切题者皆可。

(2)Part-time Jobs for College Students

1.目前大学校园里很多学生业余时间做兼职

2.对于大学生是否该做兼职工作，人们看法不一

3.我的看法

这是一道校园话题，在内容上即涉及现象，又涉及观点，能很好地考察到学生的综合分析能力。提纲1依旧是现象提出，看到提纲1，大家脑海里会浮现很多熟悉的场景，如校园布告栏里张贴着的兼职广告，校园论坛上也经常发布的一些兼职信息等等，这些都可反映在段1中。所以当我们第一眼看到话题或提纲时，脑海中常常会浮现出相关场景，把这些画面定格，进行详细描绘即可，即自然又切题。当然，段1也可从学生的兼职渠道以及兼职类型等方面加以发挥。总之，提纲是总领，而符合总领的任何附属内容都可写。段2是人们对此学生兼职的不同看法，一正一反。切记在表达上述两类观点时，提出其相关论据。段3是提出作者本人看法。本人看法既可选择上述任一方(只要不极端)，也可提出与上述均异的第三类观点，对于极度偏激的正反方观点则需做一番调和与勾兑(这个一般很少见)。需要提醒的是，继提出己方观点后，还应补充其他内容，如论据；也可写我的下一步做法，甚至可写我所认为的大家对此问题所应采取的对策云云。

(3)Private Cars of Today

1.目前私家车越来多了

2.私家车为人们带来的益处和问题

这道题只有两个提纲，所以建议在完成提纲要求内容之后再补充一段相关内容，可以在提纲2之后续补段3(如举措类：如何合理地限制私家车的出行以减少废气排放等等)，也可在1，2之间插入一段(如原因分析，即为何私家车越来越多)。先来看提纲1，依然是事实陈述，看到提纲1，会很容易联想到马路上川流不息的过往车辆，以及高峰期令人沮丧的堵车，那么即可将这些内容付诸笔端。再看提纲2，是私家车给人们生活带来的影响，该事实是一中性事实，则需辩证地分析其影响的两面性，一方面它带来好处，如让人们的出行变得更自由更方便，另一方面它带来坏处，如排放废气，污染环境，或造成交通堵塞等等。

一、议论文的结构合体

议论文,分析事实,论证道理,当然要遵循一定的思维规律;这种思维规律反映在文章的外部形态上,就是具有一定体式的文章的结构。怎样写议论文才算“合体”呢?

一是根据议论问题的一般思维模式,应当是按“提出问题、分析问题、解决问题”( 或曰“引论”、“本论”、“结论”) 三大块构成。“提出问题 ”即在议论文开头一般要鲜明地提出中心论点,“分析问题”即在文章的中间要围绕中心论点展开分析论证,“解决问题”即在文章的结尾部分或者得出综合性结论, 或者提出前瞻性希望等。这一点,众所周知,兹不赘述。

二是分析问题即本论部分,要按一定的向度分层展开论述。所谓“向度”即论述展开的方向。这个“向度”有四个: 是什么,为什么,怎么样,何果。一般情况下, 一篇中学生议论文作文,其本论部分只要从这四个向度中选择一个或者两个展开即可。但无论是从哪个向度展开, 其分论点之间都要形成一定的联系。一般来说,有并列式、递进式和对照式三种。

所谓并列式,就是围绕中心从同一个向度列出几个分论点,逐一论证。如果仅仅围绕一个向度写,那么几个分论点之间的关系大多是并列关系 。

递进式同并列式结构相比,除了论点之间的意义联系不同以外,其段落的结构模式与并列式相同,就不再说了。

所谓对照式,就是从论题的正反两个方面入手,进行正反对比论证得出结论。其优点是结构简洁,论证充分,容易上手。最简单的对照式是在提出观点后，一段从正面论证观点,一段从反面论证观点,最后得出结论。还有一种对照式结构是在正面进行论述或者摆出论据后,紧接着用转折或者假设的方式从反面展开论述。

二、思路入格

议论文是论述问题的,当然要有一定的思路,即议论文各部分之间要有必然的内在联系。我们知道,议论文是论证问题的,你在提出议论文论点后,就要摆事实,讲道理,让你提出的论点令人信服地确立起来。因此,中心论点和各分论点之间就应当是因果联系,即中心论点是“果”,分论点是“因”。这个因果联系就是议论文的思路之“格”。

作为一个高中生的议论文作文,最起码要做到在中心论点和各分论点之间 ,论点和论据之间要有一定的因果联系。

学生提出中心论点后,只要围绕中心论点问一个“为什么”,就能找到提出分论点的方向。如中心论点是“只有坚守,才能使人的思想品德升华,才能成就一番事业”。稍加分析,就可发现这个观点是在说“坚守”的重要性,于是,分论点就要回答“为什么坚守很重要”这个问题。那么就可从“为什么”和“何果”这两个向度来立分论点。如“坚守是一种执着,使绝望变成希望”,“坚守是一种信念,使普通变得高尚”,“坚守是一种职责,使平凡变得伟大”。如果我们要检验这三个分论点和中心论点之间有没有必然的内在联系的话,只需在这三个分论点之前加上“因为”,在“坚守很重要”之前加上“所以”,再连起来念一下即可。

同样,分论点和议论文的论据之间,也应当是因果联系。如在“坚守是一种职责,使平凡变得伟大”这个分论点后面,就可这样展开论述:“边防战士的坚守,使国家安定祥和;人民教师的坚守,使桃李满天下;白衣天使的坚守,使病魔为之屈服。”又如在“自由是思想的漫飞”这个分论点下可以这样展开论述:“行动可以受制于客观现实,思想却永远享受绝对的自由。有了这份思想的自由,才有了集豪放与浪漫于一身的诗仙李白;才有了身陷囹圄还在感叹‘故国不堪回首月明中’的落魄后主李煜;才有了向往‘面朝大海,春暖花开’的天才诗人海子。总之,因为这份思想的自由,社会才会在其牵引之下不断地进步,才会创造出一个个永载史册的人类奇迹。”

三、粘连有术

一篇像样的议论文,除了议论文的结构合体、思路入格外,还有更重要的一个方面,就是对论点的恰当阐述和对论据的中肯分析;没有这样的阐述和分析,议论文论点论据就不能粘连起来,而这个粘连是有“术”的。

(一) 观点+过渡+事例+分析

这个步骤中最重要的是“过渡”和“分析”。所谓“过渡”就是要在观点和事例之间,用适当的词句来勾连,以接通文气,使观点和议论文材料在语言形式上畅通无阻。所谓“分析”,就是事例叙述完之后,还必须对事例进行适当的分析评论,指出其本质特点,使事例和论点在内容上联结在一起。

(二) 观点+过渡+论据+分析+归纳

这种议论文论证方式就是在第一种的基础上加了一个“归纳”。所谓归纳,就是从多个事例中提炼出必然性的东西。既然要从多个事例中提炼,那么,“论据”部分,就应是两个或三个以上。

(三) 一般道理+个别道理

即“演绎推理法”。前面的分析归纳是从个别到一般,而演绎推理法是从一般到个别,用普遍性的真理(论据)来证明特殊的论点的方法。

写作文要创新，要出彩，切忌重复过去，切忌重复别人。只有创新才能出奇制胜，只有出彩才能写出耳目一新的文章，小编整理了2017年小升初作文指导，欢迎阅读。

一、平心静气，成竹在胸

考场作文的心态很重要，特别是看到自己平时没有准备的，心中没有底的作文时，有人不免要慌乱，你要告戒自己，作文是猜不到的，很正常，但我努力思考，我肯定又是熟悉的，要有自信，对自己说我能写好，成功与失败很大程度上决定于心理素质，要平心静气，努力思考，要成竹在胸，写好作文。还要不断地给自己以积极的暗示，一般的同学不妨这么

想：千字小文何足惧，写出佳作大有希望。

二、仔细审题，把握材料

从近几年高考来看，作文命题是话题作文，它包括：材料，话题，限定条件。这种“限而不死”的作文形式，其优越性日渐为人们所认识。因此，按提供的材料认真审题，就成了考场作文的起点，也是写好考场作文的关键。

话题作文的题面通常由话题材料、写作话题和注意事项三部分组成，其中材料是话题的依托，话题是写作的中心，注意事项是对写作提出的补充要求。审题时，这三部分都要认真揣摩，万不可顾此失彼。

三、文题简洁，准确醒目

文题是文章的眉目，“文好题一半”。一个好的题目，可以概括全文的内容，可以体现全文的思路，可以蕴涵全文的主旨，可以表明全文的特色，能给人清新脱俗、耳目一新的感觉，能一下子抓住读者的注意力、激发起仔细阅读的兴趣，能使文章起到眉目传神的妙用。考场作文的文题应力求简洁凝炼，形象生动，拟题原则是“小”“准”“新”，能展示文采，先声夺人。常见的文题有三种类型。1、采用原话题的原词句，并不多加改造。如《心灵的选择》《小议诚信》。2、在对原话题理解的基础上，所拟文题或明确主旨，或概括内容，或体现思路，或表明特色，如《高扬道德的大旗》、《失败是种难言的美丽》。3、采用一定的修辞方法，常见的如比喻《用语言连缀心灵的星空》，夸张式《世界很小是个家》，引用式《你不该安静地走开》(歌曲)、《忙兮忙兮奈若何》(诗句)，反问式《21世纪你美吗》，情景式《滑铁卢上空的雄鹰》，符号式《出发+拼搏=到达》，呼告式《妈妈，我想对你说》，对比式《英雄无用武之地与英雄有用武之地》。这三种情况以后两种为好。

四、凤头引蝶，立意新颖

古人写文章很讲究开头，称之“凤头”，西方的谚语也这样说：好的开头是成功的一半。对于一篇800字左右的考场作文来说更是如此，往往开头便决定了整篇文章的大体走势，定下了文章的基调。同时，一个好的开头也增加考生写好下文的信心。开头的方法有很多，但究竟如何开头需要因文而定，因人而定。只要能够使阅卷者更好地理解和把握文章，且富有感染力和吸引力，就是成功的文章开头。

立意时一要善于“化大为小”，口子要小，要善于在一个大的、宽泛的范围内，“择其一点，不及其余”，也就是只写“大范围”中的“某一方面”，给自己提供了一个充分发挥、具体表现的好舞台，这样才能在小篇幅内写出立意鲜明集中、内容具体充实的好文章。二要善于“以小见大”，从小的方面表现深刻的主题。这就要求我们在选择“小的方面”的时候，注意所选方面的“现实性、针对性、典型性”。

立意对文章写作的成败至关重要，应该在准确、深刻、新颖、独到上下工夫，最好能体现出创新意识，这就需要有见地、有胆识，善于避开人云亦云的观点，跳出陈陈相因的窠臼，表现出自己对社会、对人生的真实感受和认识。如果想写出认识深刻的的文章来，就要“见人所未见，发人所未发”。要做到深思，就必须由此及彼、由表及里、由浅入深(由个别到一般)，透过现象深入本质，揭示问题产生的原因，要辩证分析，自己观点具有启发作用。

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

1. According to a recent survey， four million people die each year from diseases linked to smoking.依照最近的一项调查，每年有4，000，000人死于与吸烟有关的疾病。

2. The latest surveys show that quite a few children have unpleasant associations with homework.最近的调查显示相当多的孩子对家庭作业没什么好感。

3. No invention has received more praise and abuse than Internet.没有一项发明像互联网一样同时受到如此多的赞扬和批评。

4. People seem to fail to take into account the fact that education does not end with graduation.人们似乎忽视了教育不应该随着毕业而结束这一事实。

5. An increasing number of people are beginning to realize that education is not complete with graduation.越来越多的人开始意识到教育不能随着毕业而结束。

6. When it comes to education， the majority of people believe that education is a lifetime study.说到教育，大部分人认为其是一个终生的学习。

7. Many experts point out that physical exercise contributes directly to a persons physical fitness.许多专家指出体育锻炼直接有助于身体健康。

8. Proper measures must be taken to limit the number of foreign tourists and the great efforts should be made to protect local environment and history from the harmful effects of international tourism.应该采取适当的措施限制外国旅游者的数量，努力保护当地环境和历史不受国际旅游业的不利影响。

9. An increasing number of experts believe that migrants will exert positive effects on construction of city. However， this opinion is now being questioned by more and more city residents， who complain that the migrants have brought many serious problems like crime and prostitution.越来越多的专家相信移民对城市的建设起到积极作用。然而，越来越多的城市居民却怀疑这种说法，他们抱怨民工给城市带来了许多严重的问题，像犯罪和卖淫。

10. Many city residents complain that it is so few buses in their city that they have to spend much more time waiting for a bus， which is usually crowded with a large number of passengers.许多市民抱怨城市的公交车太少，以至于他们要花很长时间等一辆公交车，而车上可能已满载乘客。

11. There is no denying the fact that air pollution is an extremely serious problem： the city authorities should take strong measures to deal with it.无可否认，空气污染是一个极其严重的问题：城市当局应该采取有力措施来解决它。

12. An investigation shows that female workers tend to have a favorable attitude toward retirement.一项调查显示妇女欢迎退休。

12a. A proper part-time job does not occupy students too much time. In fact， it is unhealthy for them to spend all of time on their study. As an old saying goes： All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.一份适当的业余工作并不会占用学生太多的时间，事实上，把全部的时间都用到学习上并不健康，正如那句老话：只工作，不玩耍，聪明的孩子会变傻。

14. Any government， which is blind to this point， may pay a heavy price.任何政府忽视这一点都将付出巨大的代价。

15.Nowadays， many students always go into raptures at the mere mention of the coming life of high school or college they will begin. Unfortunately， for most young people， it is not pleasant experience on their first day on campus.当前，一提到即将开始的学校生活，许多学生都会兴高采烈。然而，对多数年轻人来说，校园刚开始的日子并不是什么愉快的经历。

中考作文，除要符合2011版《语文课程标准》的要求“语言文从字顺、具体明确”外，还要符合各地考纲的评分标准，如讲究文采、语言亮丽、语句意蕴丰厚等。这样，考生的作文才能获得理想的分数。具体来说考生可以从以下几个方面做起：

一、用语贴切，意蕴深远

杜甫留下了“语不惊人死不休”的经典佳话，贾岛也有“推敲”的感人故事，名家写作历来重视词语的雕琢、精心锤炼，力求传神。生动贴切的词语可以为一个句子增色不少。中考作文要使语言鲜明生动、新颖脱俗，考生应尽可能选用那些具体、形象、内涵丰富的词语来写景状物、表情达意，尤其要重视对动词、形容词的锤炼。

二、活用修辞，精彩纷呈

著名语言学家王力曾说过：“修辞的作用就在于给平实的语言赋予超凡的表达效果。”修辞之于语言，犹如华美的服饰之于人。俗话说：“人靠衣装扮靓。”文章语言则需要修辞来装饰。

在作文中，善用比喻能让作文生动形象，满篇生辉;善用拟人既可以鲜明地表达作者的情感，又可以激发读者的想象;善用排比能增强语句的气势，表达强烈的感情;使用对偶句式则使语言凝练，形式整齐……

如《安塞腰鼓》中就大量使用了排比和反复的修辞手法，语言气势充沛，节奏鲜明，感情强烈。

三、巧借手法，推波助澜

表现手法，是指在文学创作中塑造形象、反映生活所运用的各种具体方法和技巧。表现手法在文章文采方面所起的作用是显而易见的，可以说，文章语言因表现手法而内蕴丰富，文章主题因表现手法而不断升华。常见的表现手法有渲染和烘托、联想和想象、借景抒情、借物抒情、欲扬先抑、象征、铺垫、照应等。

如《安塞腰鼓》一文，作者正是通过第一段的铺垫、对比来衬托安塞腰鼓的壮阔、豪放、热烈的特点，从而表达了对质朴、粗犷、豪迈的安塞人的热情讴歌。如没有这些表现手法的巧妙运用，语言带给读者的震撼是不会如此强烈的。

真题再现

阅读下面文字，按要求写作。

自律是什么?自律就是自我约束、自我管理、自我反省。自律能让我们克服惰性、抵制诱惑、学会战胜自己。“吾日三省吾身：为人谋而不忠乎?与朋友交而不信乎?传不习乎?”说的也是这个道理。你在学习和生活中约束、管理、反省过自己了吗?你在自律中获得怎样的感悟呢?

请以“自律”为题，写一篇文章。

要求：(1)诗歌除外，文体不限;(2)不少于600字;(3)文中不能出现真实的人名、校名、地名。